Complete Works of D.H. Lawrence (Illustrated), page 912
Of all the humanists Erasmus of Rotterdam was the most famous. He was called ‘ the Man by Himself.’ He was recognised on both sides of the Alps as the literary chief of Europe, somewhat as Petrarch had been two hundred years before. Forced into a monastery in Holland when he was young, Erasmus escaped to the university of Paris, and afterwards to Oxford. He was feeble in health, but he became the greatest scholar of his time, and popes, princes, statesmen and doctors bowed before him.
In his Handbook for the Christian Soldier, published in 1503, he showed that each individual was directly responsible to God, apart from any priestly intermediary. We see the old Teutonic independence breaking out here. But his greatest work was the fresh translation of the New Testament. He printed the original Greek and his own accurate Latin translation in columns side by side. This appeared in 1516. It rapidly travelled all over Europe, and opened men’s eyes for the first time to the real story of Christ and the Apostles. In this true Gospel men could find nothing about a pope or cardinals or any Church of Rome. This did more than anything to prepare the way for the actual Reformation.
Erasmus himself was a scholar, not a fighter. He did not want to quarrel with popes or with princes. He did not want to alter the standing institutions. He just let men see for themselves.
Martin Luther scorned him, thinking him timid. But then Luther was a fighter rather than a deep, subtle thinker. Luther was the sturdy son of a peasant, born in Germany in 1483. In 1501 he entered the University of Erfurt, then most famous for its humanistic studies. In 1505 he took his Master of Arts degree, and then suddenly entered a monastery, much to his father’s disappointment. But though Luther was robust and cheerful by nature, he had many dark hours of struggle with Satan, when the Evil One seemed actually to grip him round the body.
In the time of bis monastic life he was a pale, haggard young man, with little joy in life, filled with dread of God, and with anguish on account of sin. But at last peace came to him. One day, reading the Epistle to the Romans, the meaning of the text: ‘ The just shall live by faith,’
entered his heart. He knew now why all his confessions and penances had been in vain. He must have perfect faith in the close fellowship of God with himself. He felt that God was with him, and he was filled with joy.
Now the Middle Ages have been called the Age of Faith. But their faith is different. They had a blind belief in the awful and unlimited power of God, and also in a wonderful divine magic which could suddenly set a man amidst the splendour of heaven. But they had no faith in their own being. They had no faith in the pure love that exists between a man and his God, a relationship so near and personal that it is unspeakable. Of this the Middle Ages conceived nothing. They knew nothing of the personal relation between a man and his God, and the faith in this relation. Their faith was all in the magic powers of God, impersonal, superhuman, marvellous. Martin Luther was the first to make religion truly human and near. And when the pure, unspeakable union was established between God and a man’s own heart, how could anything or anybody, pope or priest, interfere with it? The new way of religion was an unspeakable joy to men, and a most wonderful rich freedom. The heart was free to be alone with God.
In 1508 Luther was sent as teacher to the new University of Wittenberg, and in 1511 he went on a mission to Rome. Rome was still the centre of the world to him. The first sight of the city filled him with ecstasy. ‘ I greet thee, thou Holy Rome, thrice holy from the blood of martyrs,’ he cried. But he felt very differently when he stayed in the town. Then he saw all the luxury, splendour, and injustice of the Papal Court. He saw how proud the bishops and cardinals were, how they scorned such a nobody as he was. He felt they ail held him beneath notice, in Rome. Only God would remember him. In his poor lodging, moreover, he heard many bitter complaints of men who had waited in vain for justice and a hearing at the court, and of men who were spoiled, broken in life by the crucl arrogance of prelates and pope. While all the gorgeous feastings and shows went on, he thought of those who were ruined, whose grievances were hopeless. He turned to the God whose voice spoke to his own heart, and wondered what all this pomp had to do with Him. And he repeated to himself many times, ‘ The just shall live by faith.’ Perhaps some of the old faith lingered in Rome, but there was none of the new.
Luther returned rather bitterly to Germany. But he was happy in Wittenberg, especially after he became Professor of Theology and had his own house with his own students. He also was a great preacher, powerful and moving, in his own German tongue.
In 1517 John Tetzel, a Dominican monk, was sent through Central Germany with an indulgence proclaimed by the Medici Pope, Leo x. People were to byy these little sin-pardon tickets, and the proceeds of the sale were supposed to go to the building of the great St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome, which was then in course of erection. But indulgences were already a scandal in North Europe. Erasmus had written against them. Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, forbade Tetzel to enter his dominions. The monk was, however, often enough on the border.
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed to the door of the Church of Wittenberg an invitation to all to debate with him, either by speech or Avriting, the question of indulgences. Luther also nailed up his famous ninety- five heads of argument against indulgences, in which he argued that the Pope could not pardon sin, only God could do that: that men who repented could not have any need of an indulgence-ticket, and that men who did not repent could not profit, by such a device — and so on.
The ninety-five arguments were printed and spread quickly over Western Europe. All men read them. The German princes were sympathetic, for they had never liked the interference of the papal court. On the other side many faithful churchmen attacked Luther for daring to disapprove of the Pope and to deny the papal authority. A controversy raged. The Pope did not appear to care much. What he did mind, said the Reformers, was that hardly any indulgences were sold.
Luther was summoned to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan, at the Diet of Augsburg, in October 1518. He went, well prepared to argue the point. The legate refused to hear any argument, and demanded him instantly to take back all he had written. Luther refused, and returned to Wittenberg. Immediately he published an account, telling people exactly what had happened. Throughout all his strife with the papacy he told the world plainly what took place, so that, step by step, the German people followed the situation. Thus there was no sudden flare of enthusiasm as with Savonarola. The Reformation developed gradually and surely in people’s minds and hearts, a real conviction, a genuine understanding.
Frederick of Saxony, Luther’s prince, was all the way true to the reformer. Leo x. sent a golden rose, perfumed and consecrated, to the Elector, to win his friendship and to get him to bring Luther to write a letter of submission. Luther promised. But then the renowned Professor Eck invited Luther to Leipsic, to a dispute. The famous Leipsic Disputation began on June 27, 1519. Eck wanted to trick Luther into making some statement that would prove him a heretic, so that he might be burned as Huss and Jerome had been. And he succeeded. For when he pressed Luther about the teachings of Huss, Luther plainly said that he could not consider all the teachings of this great man to be false. Now the Church had declared they were. So here was Luther committed, as good as a heretic.
Luther went home pondering what he did believe. And he realised that in truth his beliefs were not really the same as those of the Church. He immediately began to write sermons and treatises, and to publish them, showing people exactly what he believed in his soul. Men read them with eagerness, and Luther was joined by Ulrich von Hutten and by the delicate, cultured young scholar, Philip Melanchthon, who was a much finer scholar than Luther, but who served the strong and undaunted nature of the greater man lovingly and faithfully.
In 1520 the Pope excommunicated Luther. The Elector Frederick refused to have the Bull of Excommunication published in his dominions. On December 10, 1520, in the open space outside the walls of Wittenberg, Luther, in presence of professors, students, and citizens, openly burned the Bull. Thus Luther had cut himself off from the Church.
The Emperor Charles v. had been crowned at Aix-la- Chapelle, in 1520. In 1521 he summoned his first Diet or Council to meet at Worms. Charles was a young, serious man. He hated heretical monks. At the same time he saw that the Church needed reforming, and he did not like powerful popes. Luther might be of some use against the Pope, who was a dangerous rival to the Emperor in Italy.
Luther was summoned to Worms, and a safe-conduct was sent. It was like Huss setting off for Constance. ‘ My dear brother,’ he said to Philip Melanchthon, ‘ if I do not come back, if my enemies put me to death, you will go on teaching and standing fast to the truth; if you live my death will matter little.’ So he set off, knowing he went probably to meet his death.
On the afternoon of April 17, Luther appeared before the Diet of Worms. He was shown a pile of his own books on a table, and asked if he was prepared to acknowledge the authorship of these works, and to recant his heresies. To the first question he answered yes, to the second, that he needed time. He was given one day. The next day he made his famous speech, before emperor, cardinals, princes, bishops. He said he would recant nothing unless it was proved by the Scriptures to be wrong. ‘ Here I stand,’ he said, ‘ I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.’
The Emperor and his Spaniards did not like the speech, but the Germans were deeply impressed. They were furious when it was suggested that the safe-conduct should be rescinded, and would not hear of proceeding against Luther as the Council of Constance had proceeded against Huss. On April 27, Luther left Worms with a safe- conduct lasting for twenty days more. At the end of twenty days he was to be seized and burned as a heretic. The German lords had secured him so much safety from the venomous Spaniards and Italians.
On the return journey, Luther’s travelling-wagon was attacked and captured and he was carried off, no one knew whither. Wildest rumours flew about. But as a matter of fact his own prince had carried him off to safety, in hiding, in the Castle of Wartburg. Gradually this leaked out.
The imperial ban, called the Edict of Worms, was published on May 25, not until the Elector Frederick had left the city. It declared that the heretic’s life was forfeited and ordered all his writings to be burned. After May 14, none were to give him food or shelter, under pain of severe punishment. But the Elector held him in safe keeping, and was not daunted.
While Luther lay hidden in the Wartburg, his teachings became more and more popular, partly because of the excitement of his defiance and disappearance. Monks, priests, and even bishops in Germany began to preach his doctrines. Men declared he had written what they were all thinking. Artists drew pictures to illustrate his works, authors wrote about them. Meantime he was busy at his great work of translating the Bible into German, a magnificent work, one of the proud possessions of Germany to-day, as our English translation is a proud possession to us.
At the same time false, or at least rash prophets rose up from among his own following, men who preached a crusade against monasteries, against pictures and images in churches, seeking to do away with all places of education as well as with places of amusement. Already the movement was beginning to run wild. Luther hastened home from his hiding-place to stop it. On eight successive days he preached to the people, with great earnestness and wisdom, till they recognised their true leader, and abandoned the rash new prophets. For Luther appealed to their deep understanding, the mind and heart as well, not to their excitable passions.
Luther might now have been seized. But the authorities were afraid to enforce the Edict, for fear of civil war. The German rulers told the Pope this when he demanded Luther’s instant seizure. So the reformer was safe and free still. In 1524 the Diet of Nuremberg promised to execute the Edict of Worms ‘ as well as they were able, and as far as was possible.’
There came a reaction against the Reformers, for the new movement was spreading too fast. Duke George of Saxony, the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, the Duke of Bavaria and the Elector of Brandenburg, urged on by the Pope’s legate, met at Ratisbon and decided to take measures to suppress the Lutheran movement. Thus threatened, the reform princes were forced to make a union. Frederick, Elector of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and Albert of Brandenburg, head of the Teutonic Knights, joined with the free cities on the Lutheran side. So the two great parties were divided. It was a sad event to Luther, for above all things he did not want war.
Charles was at war with the Pope, so could not take action, and matters stood as they were. After much thought the Diet of Spires decided in 1526 that the Word of God should be preached without disturbance, and that, for the time being, each State should so live, rule, and conduct itself as it hoped to answer for its conduct to God and the Emperor. Thus princes became more independent, and the principle was established: To each State its own religion. Then the Lutheran States and cities began to organise their church and public worship to suit their own beliefs. The services were read in German, Luther’s bible and hymns were used, monasteries were suppressed, their buildings used as churches or schools, while monks and nuns were allowed to remain as school-teachers. Then the great blow came, when the Lutherans declared that monks and nuns were allowed to marry, and when Luther, throwing off his vow of chastity, was publicly wedded to Catherine Bora, a former nun.
This put all Europe into a raging ferment. When the Emperor made peace with the Pope, the Diet of Spires of 1529 reversed the decision of 1526. The Lutheran party at once drew up the formal ‘Protest’ against the reversion, and henceforth all people of the reformed faith were called ‘ Protesters ‘ or ‘ Protestants.’
In 1530 Charles opened the Diet of Augsburg and asked the Protestants to give to him, their emperor, a written account of all their opinions and difficulties. They therefore drew up the famous Confession of Augsburg, written chiefly by Melanchthon. Luther, still an outlaw, was not present at Augsburg, for he would have been seized. He suffered greatly lest Melanchthon, who was gentle and submissive, should yield too far in his desire to be at one and at peace with the great old Church. Melanchthon, however, kept true to the new faith, and the Protestants would not yield to the Emperor’s pressure, so no agreement was come to. The Diet then declared that if the Protestants had not decided to return to the Catholic Church by April 30, 1531, they were to be put down by force.
Then the Protestants had to gather themselves. They met at Schmalkalde, and in spite of Luther’s strong feeling against the use of force, they decided to arm themselves in readiness. At this moment, however, the invasions of the Turks in Hungary and Austria, and many other complications in Spain and Italy prevented the Emperor from dealing with the Protestants. For twelve years he had not a leisure moment to bestow on the Reformers, who thus had time to grow very strong in Germany.
Having his hands full, moreover, and detesting as well the Pope and the papal power, Charles preferred to hope for an agreement with his Germans. He was not anxious for war.
So affairs drifted on, till Luther died in 154G. He had lived happily with his family in Wittenberg, and peace had been kept. He saw the new faith spread far and gone deep. Protestantism was already deep in the hearts of the people by the time Luther died. The Reformation was truly a people’s movement, and Luther was a great leader of the people. He spoke straight out to every individual man and woman, poor or rich alike. He taught every one to find peace in his own heart. No man was to look outside himself for a master. The master, God, was in his own heart.
This made men free to think and act and live. There was no priest or bishop to overawe and threaten. Quite sure of the presence of God in his heart, a man can never be overawed nor put down. He will bring forth what he believes is true in the sight of his own God, he will live according to his own single faith. And this is very different from living according to the blind faith which is accepted merely on authority.
Protestantism, however, was not yet safe or easy. The very year Luther died, the Emperor began the war in Germany. Charles v. was a Hapsburg. This house has produced many emperors, but very few great men. The Hapsburgs rose to power through marrying princesses and acquiring territory. Charles v. was lord of Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and part of Italy. He had been brought up in Flanders, in a court under Spanish influence, for his mother, Joanna, was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. When he inherited his Austrian dominions he handed them over to his brother Ferdinand. He cared for Spain most of all; that was his kingdom which he loved.
He was far more Spanish than German. His court was filled with Spaniards, and he was followed by great Spanish armies: for in that day the Spanish infantry was counted invincible. So this Spaniard with his cruel Spanish armies came to possess Germany, to put down the Protestants. In 1547 he defeated the Protestant forces of the Schmalkaldic League.
It was easier, however, to win a battle with his Spaniards than to change the hearts of men. The Germans refused to give up their faith. The Emperor tried to force them into submission with his armies. The German people became so filled with hatred of the vindictive, ruinous, Spanish soldiery, the German princes came so to detest the Spanish emperor and the interfering Italian pope, that all Germans alike united with the Protestants against the imperial forces.
The German princes rose against the Emperor in 1552. Charles escaped over the Brenner Pass into Italy. He made his brother Ferdinand permanent Archduke of Austria, whilst he himself attended to his southern dominions. So Ferdinand of Austria gradually assumed the imperial authority in Germany. He was much more Germanic in sympathy. The Religious Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555, and the Lutheran Church was legally recognised. Cities and States were free to choose their own form of worship, and in Catholic States Protestants were to be tolerated. But the rulers of all countries still had the power to persecute their subjects, Catholic or Protestant as might be.
