Augustus, page 60
21 See Dio 54. 7. 2, Suetonius, Tiberius 6. 2–3, with A. Barrett, Livia. First Lady of Imperial Rome (2002), pp. 10–11, 16–18.
22 Barrett (2002), pp. 3–10, 15–16; death of her father, see Dio 48. 44. 1, Velleius Paterculus 2. 71. 2.
23 Suetonius, Tiberius 6. 1–3, Augustus 27. 4.
24 Ulixes stolatus, Suetonius Caius 23; in general see Flory (1988), and Barrett (2002), pp. 11–14.
25 Suetonius, Augustus 53. 1, 69. 1–2, with the later charges presumably dating to things Antony had seen in Rome; see also Flory (1988), pp. 352–3 and Barrett (2002), pp. 24–5 discussing the theory that the story of abducting a wife from the dining table refers to Livia, although Claudius Nero was only an ex-praetor and not an ex-consul.
26 Flory (1988), pp. 345–6 claims that ‘his desire to celebrate the marriage before the birth of Livia’s son suggests he stood to gain practical advantages from it on the eve of an unpopular war. Only this can explain the haste which he knew would inevitably lead to scandal about the unborn child and his prior relationship with Livia.’ Yet no one can come up with any clear sign of immediate political advantage, and this probably stems from the desire to see every action of Caesar as that of a calculating and calm political schemer. It is much more straightforward and convincing to see this as the act of precocious youth.
27 Barrett (2002), pp. 11–26, Flory (1988), p. 348; on divorce in general see S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), pp. 435–82 and ‘Divorce Roman Style: How easy and frequent was it?’ in B. Rawson (ed.), Marriage, Divorce and Children in Ancient Rome (1991), pp. 131–46; Caesar’s comment about Scribonia, see Suetonius, Augustus 62. 2; Suetonius, Claudius 1 speaks of Drusus being born three months after Caesar and Livia were married, but this must refer to the betrothal rather than the actual wedding.
28 Suetonius, Augustus 70. 1–2 (Loeb translation); on the wedding feast in general, see Suetonius, Augustus 70. 1, Dio 48. 43. 4–44. 5, with Barrett (2002), pp. 24–7, who associates the feast of the twelve gods with betrothal rather than the wedding, and Flory (1988), who makes a stronger case for this being the wedding feast; on the deliciae, Dio 48. 44. 3 and in general W. Slater, ‘Pueri, Turba Minuta’, in BICS 21 (1974), pp. 133–40.
29 Dio 48. 45. 5–46. 1, and Appian, BC 5. 78–80, who refers to Menas as Menodorus.
30 On the campaign see Appian, BC 5. 81–92, Dio 48. 46. 1–48. 4, with J. Morrison & J. Coates, Greek and Roman Oared Warships (1996), pp. 149–52, M. Pitassi, The Navies of Rome (2009), pp. 186–91, W. Rogers, Greek and Roman Naval Warfare (1937), pp. 496–516, and R. Paget, ‘The Naval Battle of Cumae in 38 BC’, Latomus 29 (1970), pp. 363–9.
31 Suetonius, Augustus 16. 2 for Neptune and 70. 2 for the verse, see also Appian, BC 5. 100, Dio 48. 48. 6–49. 1, with Powell (2002), pp. 120–26, and (2008), pp. 97–8.
32 On the failure of Octavian to meet Antony in 38 BC, see Appian, BC 4. 78–80, and for the meeting in 37 BC see Appian, BC 5. 93–5, Plutarch, Antony 35, with Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 24–7, and P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 (1971), p. 502 on the number of soldiers promised to Antony; on the ending of the first five-year term of the triumvirate see F. Millar, ‘Triumvirate and Principate’, JRS 63 (1973), pp. 50–67, esp. 51, 53, and Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 67–8.
33 Agrippa in Gaul, see Dio 48. 49. 2–3, Appian, BC 5. 92 and the discussion in J. M. Roddaz, Marcus Agrippa (1984), pp. 70–72, and Pelling in CAH2 X, p. 25, Syme (1960), p. 231.
34 Appian, BC 5. 96–122, Dio 49. 1. 1–16. 2, Suetonius, Augustus 16. 1–3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 79. 1–6, Livy, Pers. 128–9; see also Osgood (2006), pp. 298–303, Morrison & Coates (1996), pp. 154–7, Pitassi (2009), pp. 187–91, Roddaz (1984), pp. 87–138, M. Reinhold, Marcus Agrippa: A Biography (1933), p. 29 noting Agrippa’s lack of experience in naval warfare when given the command in 37 BC; on Agrippa’s harbour see R. Paget, ‘The ancient ports of Cumae,’ JRS 58 (1968), pp. 152–69, esp. 161–9; on the corona navalis, see V. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (1981), pp. 74–6.
CHAPTER 10
1 Res Gestae 3 (Loeb translation).
2 Suetonius, Augustus 17. 1 (Loeb translation).
3 For this episode see Velleius Paterculus 2. 28. 3–4, Appian, BC 5. 123–6, Dio 49. 11. 1–12. 4, with discussion in R. Weigel, Lepidus. The Tarnished Triumvir (1992), pp. 88–92.
4 Dio 49. 17. 1–18. 7, 50. 1. 4, Appian BC 5. 127, 133–44, Velleius Paterculus 2. 79. 5.
5 Plutarch, Antony 37.
6 For a detailed description of the campaign see A. Goldsworthy, Antony and Cleopatra (2010), pp. 304–20; on Antony’s losses see Plutarch, Antony 49–51, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 3. Dio 49. 31. 1–3, with A. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East, 168 BC–AD 1 (1984), pp. 320–21. Livy, Pers. 130 also claims that 8,000 men died ‘in storms’ during the march through Armenia, but does not give a figure for overall casualties; Antony’s near-suicide, see Plutarch, Antony 48; modern commentators tend to be over-generous to Antony, e.g. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 264, ‘it was a defeat, but not a rout or a disaster’. C. Pelling, Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp. 220–43 is more realistic and notes that Plutarch placed the failure of this expedition as the turning point in Antony’s life.
7 Appian, BC 5. 130–31, Res Gestae 4, and 25 where it is claimed 30,000 slaves were returned to their masters; use of slaves in Octavian’s fleet see Suetonius, Augustus 16. 1, Dio 47. 17. 4, 48. 49. 1, 49. 1. 5, the last passage implying that they were given freedom on discharge; on the honours voted to Caesar, see P. Zanker (trans. A. Shapiro), The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (1988), pp. 40–42, and B. Levick, Augustus. Image and Substance (2010), p. 40.
8 For these campaigns in general see Appian, Illyrian Wars 16–29, Dio 49. 34. 2–38. 1, 43. 8, with E. Gruen in CAH2 X, pp.172–4, and especially M. Kos, Appian and Illyricum (2005), pp. 393–471.
9 Appian, Illyrian Wars 19–21, Suetonius, Augustus 20.
10 Appian, Illyrian Wars 26, 27, Suetonius, Augustus 20, 24; Antony’s decimation of a cohort, see Plutarch, Antony 39, Dio 49. 26. 1–27. 1, with Sherwin-White (1984), p. 318.
11 J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy. Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp. 325–6.
12 Dio 47. 15. 2–3, 48. 43. 2, 49. 43. 6–7, 49. 39. 1, with Osgood (2006), pp. 257–67.
13 Osgood (2006), pp. 252–3, 326–31.
14 Suetonius, Augustus 28. 3, Pliny NH 36. 121, and for discussion see N. Purcell in CAH2 X, pp. 782–9.
15 For Cleopatra’s career in general see Goldsworthy (2010), M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra. Last Queen of Egypt (2009); for a perceptive reassessment of her significance with Julius Caesar see E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome. Fact and Fantasies’, in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds), Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in honour of T. P. Wiseman (2003), pp. 257–74, and also for the history of her father’s relationship with the Romans, see M. Siani-Davies, ‘Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans’, Historia 46 (1997), pp. 306–40; for Cicero’s mentions of her see Cicero, ad Att. 14. 8, 15. 15, with comments in Goldsworthy (2010), p. 234, contrasting with Grant (1972), pp. 95–7; Arsinoe, see Strabo, Geog. 14. 6. 6, with P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), p. 669, and Goldsworthy (2010), pp. 235–6; death of Ptolemy XIV, see Josephus, AJ 15. 39, Against Apion 2. 58, Porphyry, Fragments of Greek Historians 260.
16 Death of Arsinoe and another potential rival, see Josephus, AJ 15. 89, Appian, BC 5. 9, Dio 48. 24. 2; summoned to Lebanon, see Plutarch, Antony 51, Dio 49. 31. 4.
17 Plutarch, Antony 53–4, Appian, BC 5. 95, 138, Dio 49. 33. 3–4, with Grant (1972), pp. 150–53, Osgood (2006), p. 336, Syme (1960), p. 265.
18 Octavia continues to act on behalf of Antony in Rome, Plutarch, Antony 54; tribunicia sacrosanctitas, Dio 49. 15. 5–6, 38. 1, with discussion by Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 68–9, and A. Barrett, Livia. First Lady of Imperial Rome (2002), pp. 31–2; favour won by mitigating the impact of land confiscations, e.g. Virgil, Eclogues 1. 40–47, with Osgood (2006), pp. 121–2.
19 Plutarch, Antony 54, Dio 49. 40. 3–4, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 3–4, with comments in Grant (1972), pp. 161–2, and Pelling in CAH2 X, p. 40.
20 Plutarch, Antony 54, Dio 49. 41. 1–6, with Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 40–41, Osgood (2006), pp. 338–9, Grant (1972), pp. 162–75, J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp. 78–9, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (2001), pp. 244–5; suppression of Antony’s own account of this, Dio 49. 41. 4.
21 Horace, Epodes 9. 11–16 (Loeb translation).
22 Plutarch, Comparison between Antony and Demetrius 4, with Grant (1972), p. 188, and Pelling in CAH2 X, p. 43. On Hercules and Omphale see Zanker (1988), pp. 57–65, and esp. 58–60; on magic potions see Dio 49. 34. 1, Josephus, AJ 15. 93.
23 Suetonius, Augustus 69. 2.
24 For discussions of the propaganda war, see K. Scott, ‘The Political Propaganda of 44–30 BC’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11 (1933), pp. 7–49, esp. 33–49, Osgood (2006), pp. 335–49, Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 40–48, and Syme (1960), pp. 276–8.
25 Suetonius, Caesar 52. 2 on the pamphlet written by Caius Oppius denying that Caesarion was Caesar’s son; on the accusation of a marriage alliance with King Cotiso of Illyria, see Suetonius, Augustus 63. 2.
26 Plutarch, Antony 55–6, Dio 49. 44. 3, 50. 1. 1–2. 2.
27 Dio 49. 41. 4, 50. 2. 2– 7, with Osgood (2006), pp. 252–3; on the ending of the triumvirate, see the excellent summary by Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 67–8.
28 Velleius Paterculus 2. 83. 1–2, Pliny, NH 9. 119–21, cf. Horace, Satires 2. 3. 239–42, Valerius Maximus 9. 1. 2, Pliny, NH 9. 122; Suetonius, Caligula 37. 1, with B. Ullman, ‘Cleopatra’s pearls’, The Classical Journal 52. 5 (Feb. 1957), pp. 193–201, Osgood (2006), pp. 276–80, and Goldsworthy (2010), pp. 337–9; quote in Velleius Paterculus 2. 83. 3.
29 Plutarch, Antony 58, Suetonius, Augustus 17. 1, Dio 50. 3. 1–4. 1, with J. Johnson, ‘The authenticity and validity of Antony’s will’, L’ Antiquité Classique 47 (1978), pp. 494–503.
30 Zanker (1988), pp. 72–7.
31 Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 3 for Asinius Pollio. On the oath see The Res Gestae of the Divine Augustus 25. 2–3, Suetonius, Augustus 17. 2, with discussion in Osgood (2006), pp. 357–68; Syme (1960), p. 278, fn. 3 claims that more than 300 senators went to Antony, and his authority is one of the main reasons this figure is so often repeated as fact rather than inference.
32 Dio 50. 4. 1–6. 1, Livy 1. 32 for a detailed account of the ceremony written after Octavian had revived it; see also J. Rich, Declaring War in the Roman Republic in the Period of Transmarine Expansion (1976), pp. 56–8, 104–7.
33 Dio 50. 9. 3, Plutarch, Antony 56, with Pelling (1988), pp. 259–60, and CAH2 X, pp. 52, 55, M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp. 197–8, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp. 294–5.
34 On the campaign in general see Goldsworthy (2010), pp. 360–64; ‘sit on a ladle’, see Plutarch, Antony 62, with Pelling (1988), pp. 271–2; on the desertions see Plutarch, Antony 59, 63, Velleius Paterculus 2. 84. 2, Dio 50. 13. 6, 14. 3, with Osgood (2006), pp. 372–3 and Syme (1960), p. 296.
35 For the battle see Plutarch, Antony 64–6, 68, Dio 50. 14. 4–35. 6, with J. Carter, The Battle of Actium: The Rise and Triumph of Augustus Caesar (1970), pp. 203–13, S. Sheppard, Actium: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra. Osprey Campaign Series 211 (2009), Osgood (2006), pp. 374–5, 380–82, Grant (1972), pp. 206–15, and Pelling (1988), pp. 278–89, Goldsworthy (2010), pp. 364–9, D. Harrington, ‘The Battle of Actium – a study in historiography’, Ancient World 9. 1–2 (1984), pp. 59–64, and C. Lange, ‘The Battle of Actium: A reconsideration’, Classical Quarterly 61. 2 (2011), pp. 608–23, the latter arguing that scholars are mistaken to see the battle as lightly contested; on the capitulation of Antony’s legions, see Plutarch, Antony 68, Dio 51. 1. 4–3. 1, Velleius Paterculus 2. 85. 5–6, with L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp. 134–6.
36 Dio 51. 3. 1–4. 8, Pelling in CAH2 X, pp. 61–2.
37 Dio 51. 6. 4–8. 7, Plutarch, Antony 72–3, with Pelling (1988), pp. 297–300; apparent assistance of Caesar’s invasion by Cleopatra, see Dio 51. 10. 4–5, Plutarch, Antony 76; see Grant (1972), pp. 222–3, doubts treachery and sees the defections as due to the hopelessness of the situation.
38 In general see Goldsworthy (2010), pp. 376–87, for Cleopatra’s meeting with Caesar, see Dio 51. 11. 3, 5–13, Plutarch, Antony 82–3, with Pelling (1988), pp. 313– 16, Florus 2. 21. 9–10; her death, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 10, Dio 51. 13. 4–14. 6, Plutarch, Antony 84–6, with Pelling (1988), pp. 316–22, Velleius Paterculus 2. 87. 1; see also Grant (1972), pp. 224–8, Tyldesley (2009), pp. 189–95, E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp. 86–91, P. Green, Alexander to Actium (1990), pp. 679–82, and G. Hölbl (trans. T. Saavedra), A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (2001), pp. 248–9; Arsinoe in Julius Caesar’s triumph, Dio 53. 19. 1–20. 4, Appian, BC 2.101.
39 Dio 51. 15. 5–6, Plutarch, Antony 81. Dio claims that Caesar actually delivered his speech in Greek, but may perhaps have simply ignored the use of a local orator.
CHAPTER 11
1 Tacitus, Ann. 1. 2 (Loeb translation, slightly modified).
2 Res Gestae 3, 4 (Loeb translation).
3 Horace, Odes 1. 37 (Loeb translation).
4 Virgil, Aeneid 8. 678–99 (Loeb translation, slightly modified).
5 For a good discussion of the presentation of the battle, with references to the considerable literature on the subject, see C. Lange, Res Publica Constituta. Actium, Apollo and the Accomplishment of the Triumviral Assignment (2009), pp. 75–90, with J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy. Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp. 370–72, 375–83.
6 Horace, Epodes 7. 1–10 (Loeb translation); on the popular desire for a victory over the Parthians and conquests in Britain see J. Rich, ‘Augustus, War and Peace’, in J. Edmondson (ed.), Augustus (2009), pp. 137–64, esp. 143–6 = L. de Blois, P. Erdkamp, G. de Kleijn and S. Mols (eds), The Representation and Perception of Roman Imperial Power: Proceedings of the Third Workshop of the International Network, Impact of Empire (Roman Empire c.200 BC–AD 476) (2003), pp. 329–57.
7 Horace, Epodes 16, quotes taken from lines 1–9 (Loeb translation).
8 Horace, Epodes 1 speaks of Maecenas going with Caesar’s fleet and how the poet feels he must follow in spite of his own frailty, with Osgood (2006), pp. 362–3; on Horace at Philippi, see Odes 2. 7, which talks of fleeing the battle, cf. Epistulae 2. 2. 46–51.
9 Suetonius, Augustus 51. 1 and cf. Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 1–3, and for a detailed discussion of Augustus’ clemency to former enemies see M. Dowling, Clemency and Cruelty in the Roman World (2006), pp. 29–75.
10 e.g. Tacitus, Ann. 1. 1–2, 4, with W. Lacey, Augustus and the Principate. The Evolution of the System (1996), pp. 1–16.
11 Dio 51. 19. 1–7, with Lange (2009), pp. 125–48 for detailed discussion and Lacey (1996), pp. 182–3; on the longing for peace see Osgood (2006), pp. 389–98.
12 Dio 51. 20. 4–5, Suetonius, Augustus 22, Res Gestae 13, with Lange (2009), pp. 140–48 and J. Crook in CAH2 X, pp. 74–5; Dio 51. 19. 7 for judicial rights, which he compares to the vote of Athena in Athens, allowing him to cast a vote in any court. It may be that he was allowed to act as an ultimate court of appeal, but the details are unclear; on the augurium salutis see Lacey (1996), p. 41, fn. 92.
13 Suetonius, Augustus 63. 1 for the stillborn child, and in general A. Barrett, Livia. First Lady of Imperial Rome (2002), pp. 28–34, 118–22, and M. Dennison, Empress of Rome. The Life of Livia (2010), pp. 89–96.
14 Dio 55. 7. 2–3, with quote from Loeb translation; Athenodorus from Plutarch, Moralia 207C. 7.
15 Suetonius, Augustus 85. 1–2.
16 Quote from Nepos, Atticus 20 (Loeb translation).
17 On the garb of the kings of Alba Longa, see Dio 43. 43. 2, with S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), p. 324; on antiquarian interests among the nobility during this period see E. Rawson, Intellectual Life in the Roman Republic (1985), pp. 102–3, 233–49.
18 See Nepos, Atticus 20, and discussion in J. Rich, ‘Augustus and the spolia opima,’ Chiron 26 (1996), pp. 85–127, esp. 113–16.
19 Nepos, Atticus 22. 3–4.
20 Dio 51. 16. 3–17. 8, with A. Bowman in CAH2 X, pp. 676–89, P. Brunt, ‘The administrators of Roman Egypt’, JRS 65 (1975), pp. 124–47 and ‘Princeps and equites’, JRS 73 (1983), pp. 42–75, esp. 62–3; on Gallus see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp. 252–3, 300.
21 Dio 51. 18. 1, Suetonius, Augustus 18. 2.
22 G. Hölbl (trans. T. Saavedra), A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (2001), pp. 14–15.
23 Suetonius, Augustus 18. 1, Dio 51. 16. 5; on portraits, including the period where he was made to resemble Alexander the Great, see K. Galinsky, Augustan Culture (1996), pp. 164–79, esp. 167–8.
24 Suetonius, Augustus 17. 4, Plutarch, Antony 86, Dio 51. 15. 1 for the burial of Antony and Cleopatra, Dio 51. 19. 3–5 on the public disgrace of Antony and his images, with Lange (2009), pp. 136–40; the story of Alexander and the Gordian knot, see Plutarch, Alexander the Great 18.
25 Dio 51. 18. 1–3, with Syme (1960), pp. 300–02, and F. Millar, The Roman Near East 31 BC–AD 337 (1993), pp. 27–34.
26 Josephus, AJ 14. 314–16, and 14. 301–12 (quotes from Loeb translation); see also J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp. 105–6; temples and cults, see Dio 51. 20. 6–8; on the imperial cult in general see S. Price, Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (1985), and J. Scheid, ‘To honour the Princeps and venerate the gods. Public cult, neighbourhood cults, and imperial cult in Augustan Rome’, in Edmondson (2009), pp. 275–99, esp. 288–99.
27 Suetonius, Augustus 41. 1, Dio 51. 21. 5.
28 Josephus, AJ 15. 161–78, 183–236, BJ 1. 386–97, 431–44, with E. Schürer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ Vol. 1 (1973), pp. 301–3; Josephus, BJ 1. 397 for bodyguard unit.
