Augustus, page 53
The census overseen by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius – the Cyrenius of the Authorised Bible – was long remembered and deeply resented by the population of Judaea, provoking outbreaks of resistance. For our present purpose, what is more significant is that it began in AD 6, when Herod’s son Archelaus was deposed and Judaea became a directly administered Roman province, a process over-seen by Quirinius as legate of Syria. Thus we appear to have a direct contradiction between Matthew’s dating and Luke’s – and indeed between Luke 1: 5 and Luke 2: 1–2. Many elaborate theories have been proposed to reconcile these passages, but none have proved entirely satisfactory. Suggestions that there was a census carried out a decade or so before, while Herod was still alive and when Quirinius was appointed to an earlier, otherwise unconfirmed, legateship of Syria, rely on many conjectures. Publius Quinctilius Varus was legate of Syria when Herod died, and was already in office in 6 BC, succeeding Caius Sentius Saturninus who had been there since 9 BC. These dates seem fixed even though they partly fall during the poorly documented years of Tiberius’ sojourn in Rhodes. While it was not impossible under Augustus for a man to hold the same command twice – something that would later become very rare – it is hard to see how Quirinius could have been legate of Syria during the lifetime of Herod the Great, unless it was for a tenure of just a few months, which seems unlikely. He was probably in the wider area around this time – a spell as legate of Galatia seems possible, and he was certainly with the entourage of Caius Caesar a little later – but there is no evidence for his involvement in any census.2
For the Jewish historian Josephus, the AD 6 census overseen by Quirinius was the first Roman census in Judaea and was remembered as a traumatic event. An earlier one directly imposed by the Romans seems unlikely. We know of several censuses in Gaul during Augustus’ principate, for instance in 27 BC, 12 BC and AD 14, but Gaul was a directly ruled province and not a client kingdom. Unfortunately, we really know very little about how client kingdoms in general and Judaea in particular worked in terms of their taxation systems and the relationship these had to Rome. Herod was able to regulate the amount of taxation he levied, which implies a system of assessment of people and property, most likely based on some sort of census. How often these were carried out and how they worked – for instance whether people were required to be registered in their home communities – is unknown.3
Luke 2: 3–5 gives the need to be registered in the census as the reason why Joseph and his betrothed travelled from Nazareth in Galilee to Bethlehem in Judaea, where Mary gave birth to a son. It was important for the Messiah to be born in Bethlehem, and Matthew 2: 1 simply states that Jesus was born there, without explaining whether or not this was Joseph’s and Mary’s normal place of residence or making any mention of a census. This need not be a contradiction since, as mentioned earlier, the Gospel writers were not providing fully detailed historical contexts for the events they described, but telling their readers what they felt was important. It is possible that Joseph and Mary were required to be in Bethlehem to register for some form of census carried out by officials of Herod the Great’s kingdom and tied to taxation. It is equally possible that people at the time may have felt that in some way they were ultimately paying a tax ordered by Caesar Augustus, who had after all installed King Herod over them and who kept him in power. Whatever the precise nature of the legal relationship between the Roman state, the princeps and a client ruler like Herod – a topic over which vast amounts of scholarly ink have been shed to little real gain, since the evidence is simply not there – it would not have been unreasonable to think in this way, especially a generation or more after the events.4
All this is possible, but it remains conjecture. It is quite likely that from the perspective of the later first century the mention of a census automatically invoked the famous census of Quirinius. It is much harder to believe that there really was any direct connection between any earlier census and the one in AD 6, other than that the latter almost certainly drew on already established structures of taxation set up in the Herodian period, which in turn drew on the system of the Hasmoneans and so on. In Roman Egypt there was considerable continuity between the Roman and Ptolemaic periods and it is unlikely that this was unique. That both Gospel writers believe that Jesus was born during Herod’s last years does bring us back to an estimate of somewhere around 6–5 BC. Joseph may have gone to Bethlehem to be registered in a census held at this time and may have been forced – or chosen – to take his bride with him. Matthew’s account seems to suggest that they were there for some time. The appearance of the wise men from the east – which suggests from outside the empire and probably the heartland of the Parthian kingdom – is perfectly possible, since plenty of traders made that journey. Similarly Matthew’s claim that the family fled from Judaea to Egypt makes sense. Egypt, and especially Alexandria, had a very large Jewish community.5
Plausible does not mean certain, and ultimately we have only the meagre details of the two short Gospel accounts and not enough supporting information about Judaea in these years, and its relationship with Rome, either to prove or disprove them. It is important to remember this and unwise to be dogmatic, but a subject of this sort inevitably provokes a far more emotional response than mere details of the life of someone like Augustus, and different standards of proof tend to be applied to biblical accounts. Thus it is frequently stated that the massacre of the innocents – Herod’s instructions to kill boy children in Bethlehem in Matthew 2: 16–18 – is an invention. More accurately we should say that there is no mention of this in any other source. Luke does not recount the episode, nor does Josephus, writing in the seventies and eighties AD, even though the latter is generally quite detailed about Herod’s reign. Josephus does record plenty of homicidal episodes in the king’s career, many involving members of his own family or of the Jerusalem aristocracy. In that sense the story in Matthew would not have been out of character, but others prefer to see it as inspired by the actual executions of his own sons on the charge of conspiring against him. These theories, much like others noting such things as the theological importance of Bethlehem as birthplace, warrant consideration, but fall well short of proof. Similarly, a statement that something is plausible does not mean that we can say that it definitely happened. As in the rest of this book, it is important to acknowledge the limits of our evidence, and there is no harm in reminding ourselves that there are similarly many aspects of Augustus’ life, and of ancient history in general, that cannot be established with confident – let alone absolute – certainty.6
GLOSSARY
Aedile: The aediles were magistrates responsible for aspects of the day-to-day life of the City of Rome, including the staging of a number of annual festivals. The aedileship was usually held between the quaestorship and the praetorship. There were fewer aediles than praetors and the post was not a compulsory part of the cursus honorum.
Aeneid: The twelve-book epic poem composed by the poet Virgil and released after his death. It was immediately acknowledged as one of the greatest achievements of Latin verse and became a standard text for education. It tells of the journeys of the Trojan Aeneas after the fall of his homeland until he and his people settle in Italy, so that his descendants could subsequently found Rome.
Aerarium militare: The Military Treasury established by Augustus in AD 6 to fund the army and in particular arrange for the pay and discharge bonuses of soldiers. Although he provided the bulk of the initial money from his own fortune, an unpopular inheritance tax was set up to support it in the future.
Aquilifer: The standard-bearer who carried the legion’s standard (aquila), a silver or gilded statuette of an eagle mounted on a staff.
Ala: An ala was a unit of auxiliary cavalry roughly equivalent in size to an infantry cohort.
Ara Pacis Augustae: The Altar of Peace is one of the great expressions of Augustan art. It was voted as an honour to commemorate his return to Rome in 13 BC and dedicated in 9 BC. The theme of peace celebrated both the end of civil strife and the peace achieved by victories over foreign enemies.
Auctoritas: The prestige and influence of a Roman senator. Auctoritas was greatly boosted by military achievements.
Augur: Members of one of the most important priestly colleges at Rome, the fifteen augurs were appointed for life. Their most important responsibility was the supervision of the correct observation and interpretation of the auspices, taken regularly as part of Roman public life. During his dictatorship Julius Caesar added a sixteenth member to the college.
Auxilia (auxiliaries): The non-citizen soldiers recruited into the army during the late Republic were known generally as auxiliaries or supporting troops.
Ballista: A two-armed torsion catapult capable of firing bolts or stones with considerable accuracy. These were built in various sizes and most often used in sieges.
Candidatus: A man seeking election wore an especially whitened (candidatus) toga to signal his intention to his fellow citizens, giving us our word ‘candidate’.
Cataphract: Heavily armoured cavalryman often riding an armoured horse. These formed an important component of the Parthian army.
Centurion: An important grade of officers in the Roman army for most of its history, centurions originally commanded a century of eighty men. The most senior centurion of a legion was the primus pilus, a post of enormous status held only for a year.
Century (centuria): The basic sub-unit of the Roman army, the century was commanded by a centurion and usually consisted of eighty men.
Cohort (cohors): The basic tactical unit of the legion, consisting of six centuries of eighty soldiers with a total strength of 480.
Comitia centuriata: The Assembly of the Roman people which elected the most senior magistrates including the consuls and praetors. It was divided into 193 voting groups of centuries, membership of which was based on property registered in the census. The wealthier members of society had a highly disproportionate influence on the outcome. Its structure was believed to be based on the organisation of the early Roman army.
Comitia tributa: The Assembly of the entire Roman people including both patricians and plebeians. It was divided into thirty-five voting tribes, membership of which was based on ancestry. It had power to legislate and was presided over by a consul, praetor or curule aedile. It also elected men to a number of posts including the quaestorship and curule aedileship.
Concilium plebis: The Assembly of the Roman plebs, whether meeting to legislate or elect certain magistrates such as the tribunes of the plebs. Patricians were not allowed to take part. The people voted in thirty-five tribes, membership of which was based on ancestry. This Assembly was presided over by the tribunes of the plebs.
Consul: The year’s two consuls were the senior elected magistrates of the Roman Republic, and held command in important campaigns. Sometimes the Senate extended their power after their year of office, in which case they were known as proconsuls.
Curia (and Curia Julia): The Curia or Senate House building stood on the north side of the Forum Romanum and had traditionally been built by one of the kings. Sulla restored it, but it was burnt down during the funeral of Clodius. As dictator, Julius Caesar began work on a new Curia, and this was completed by Augustus. Even when the building was in good condition, on some occasions the Senate could be summoned to meet in other buildings for specific debates.
Cursus honorum: The term given to the career pattern regulating public life. Existing legislation dealing with age and other qualifications for elected magistracies was restated and reinforced by Sulla during his dictatorship, and subsequently modified by Augustus.
Dictator: In times of extreme crisis a dictator was appointed for a six-month period during which he exercised supreme civil and military power. Later victors in civil wars, such as Sulla and Julius Caesar, used the title as a basis for more permanent power.
Ephebe: Adolescent males in Greek cities underwent a process of state-supervised training at the gymnasium. This was mainly concerned with physical fitness, but often included elements of more specifically military training.
Equites (sing. eques): The equestrians or ‘knights’ were the group with the highest property qualification registered by the census. From the time of the Gracchi they were given a more formal public role as jurors in the courts, an issue that became extremely contentious. Only under Augustus was a separate senatorial order created as a distinct class.
Fasces (sing. fascis): An ornamental bundle of rods some five feet long, in the middle of which was an axe. They were carried by lictors and were the most visible symbols of a magistrate’s power and status.
Forum Augustum: The Forum constructed by Augustus with the Temple of Mars Ultor at its centre.
Forum Julium (or Forum Caesaris): The Forum planned and begun by Julius Caesar and completed by Augustus. It had the Temple of Venus Genetrix at its centre.
Forum Romanum: The political and economic heart of the City of Rome, which lay between the Capitoline, Palatine, Quirinal and Velian hills. Public meetings were often held either around the Rostra, or at the eastern end of the Forum. The Concilium plebis and Comitia tributa also usually met in the Forum to legislate.
Gladius: A Latin word meaning sword, gladius is conventionally used to describe the gladius hispaniensis, the Spanish sword which was the standard Roman side arm until well into the third century AD. Made from high-quality steel, this weapon could be used for cutting, but was primarily intended for thrusting.
Hasmonaean: In the second century BC, Judaea successfully rebelled against the Seleucids. An independent kingdom was created, ruled by the Hasmonaean dynasty. Antony and Octavian eventually installed Herod the Great in place of the old royal family.
Imperium: The power of military command held by magistrates and pro-magistrates during their term of office. Augustus was granted what was later termed maius imperium proconsulare – i.e. proconsular power that was superior to all other proconsuls. This would subsequently be granted to Agrippa and Tiberius.
Legatus (pl. legati): A subordinate officer who held delegated imperium rather than exercising power in his own right. Legati were chosen by a magistrate rather than elected. Under Augustus they were divided into two main grades, later known as the legatus legionis who commanded a legion, and the legatus Augusti who commanded a province.
Legion (legio): Originally a term meaning levy, the legions became the main unit of the Roman army for much of its history. In Augustus’ day the theoretical strength of a legion was around 4,800–5,000 men in ten cohorts, each of 480 men. The effective strength of a legion on campaign was often much lower than this, especially during the civil wars.
Lictor: The official attendants of a magistrate who carried the fasces which symbolised his right to dispense justice and inflict capital and corporal punishment. Twelve lictors attended a consul, while a dictator was normally given twenty-four.
Magister equitum: Second-in-command to the Republican dictator, the Master of Horse traditionally commanded the cavalry, since the dictator was forbidden to ride a horse.
Mausoleum: The monumental tomb of Augustus begun before Actium and named after the famous tomb of the Carian King Mausolus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Naumachia Augusti: The naumachia was the famous naval battle staged as entertainment by Augustus in 2 BC. It involved some thirty warships and thousands of crewmen in a specially excavated lake.
Nomenclator: A specially trained slave whose task was to whisper the names of approaching citizens, permitting his master to greet them in a familiar way. Such a slave normally accompanied a canvassing politician.
Ornamenta triumphalia: Augustus introduced the ‘ornaments’ of a triumph given as a reward in place of a triumph itself. After 19 BC, no one outside his extended family was granted a full triumph, but provincial governors who had won a victory were given this distinction instead.
Ovatio (ovation): A lesser form of the triumph, in an ovation the general rode through the City on horseback rather than in a chariot.
Pantheon: The temple to the gods constructed by Agrippa. Although his name still appears on its inscription, the building we know today was rebuilt by Hadrian in the second century AD.
Pater patriae: The title of ‘father or his country’ or pater patriae was given to Augustus in 2 BC.
Pilum (pl. pila): The heavy javelin which was the standard equipment of the Roman legionary for much of Rome’s history. Its narrow head was designed to punch through an enemy’s shield, the long thin shank then giving it the reach to hit the man behind it.
Pontifex maximus: The head of the college of fifteen pontiffs, one of three major priesthoods monopolised by the Roman aristocracy. The pontiffs regulated the timing of many state festivals and events. The pontifex maximus was more chairman than leader, but the post was highly prestigious.
Praetor: Praetors were annually elected magistrates who under the Republic governed the less important provinces and fought Rome’s smaller wars.
Praetorian cohort: The praetorians in this period were carefully selected and splendidly equipped soldiers drawn from the legions. Each general was entitled to raise a single cohort of praetorians, but in the course of the civil wars the triumvirs each came to control several of these formations, taken over from their subordinates. After Actium, Augustus established nine permanent praetorian cohorts to form his guard. At this stage they had no permanent barracks in Rome and only three cohorts were ever present in the City at any one time.
Prefect (praefectus): Equestrian officer with a range of duties, including the command of units of allied or auxiliary troops.
