Augustus, page 57
ILS = Dessau, H. (1892–1916), Incriptiones Latinae Selectae
Josephus, AJ = Josephus, Jewish Antiquities
Josephus, BJ = Josephus, The Jewish War
JRA = Journal of Roman Archaeology
JRS = Journal of Roman Studies
Justin = Justinus, Epitome
Livy, Pers. = Livy, Roman History. Periochae.
OGIS = Dittenberger, W., Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae (1903–5).
Pliny the Elder, NH = Pliny the Elder, Natural History
Pliny the Younger, Epistulae = Pliny the Younger, Letters
Quintilian = Quintilian, Training in Oratory
Sallust, Bell. Cat. = Sallust, The Catilinarian War
Sallust, Bell. Jug. = Sallust, The Jugurthine War
Sallust, Hist. = Sallust, Histories
SEG. = Roussel, P., Tod, M., Ziebarth, E. & Hondius, J. (eds), Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum (1923–)
Serv. = Servius
Strabo, Geog. = Strabo, Geography
Tacitus, Ann. = Tacitus, Annals
Valerius Maximus = Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings
Velleius Paterculus = Velleius Paterculus, Roman History
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1 Luke 2: 1–3.
2 The more recent HBO Rome (2006–07) mini-series gave the young Octavius a slightly more sympathetic character, although when a different actor took over as the older version he became colder and more calculating. His sadism was also made more than a hint, as when he tells his new bride Livia that it will give him pleasure to hurt her when they make love.
3 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, 4. 1. 1.
4 Among the recent short studies of Augustus and his era, the best are D. Shotter, Augustus Caesar (2nd edn, 1991), W. Eck, The Age of Augustus (2003), K. Galinsky, Augustus. Introduction to the Life of an Emperor (2012), J. Richardson, Augustan Rome 44 BC to AD 14. The Restoration of the Republic and the Establishment of the Empire (2012); of popular accounts, R. Holland, Augustus. Godfather of Europe (2004) focuses mainly on the years up to Actium, while A. Everitt, Augustus: The Life of Rome’s First Emperor (2006) is drawn to this era and the later struggle for succession.
5 Julian, Caesars 309 B-C; for brief discussion see K. Galinsky, Augustan Culture (1996), p. 373.
6 For a useful survey of historians’ attitudes to Augustus see Z. Yavetz, ‘The Res Gestae and Augustus’ public image’, in F. Millar & E. Segal (eds), Caesar Augustus. Seven Aspects (1990), pp. 1–36, esp. pp. 22–6, and also J. Edmondson (ed.) Augustus (2009), pp. 14–26.
7 For discussions of some of the principal sources, see F. Millar, A Study of Cassius Dio (1964), A. Wallace-Hadrill, Suetonius (2nd edn, 1995), C. Pelling, Plutarch and History (2002), C. Smith & A. Powell (eds), The Lost Memoirs of Augustus and the Development of Roman Autobiography (2009), R. Syme, Tacitus (2 vols,1958), and R. Mellor, Tacitus (1993).
CHAPTER 1
1 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 5.
2 For the date, see Suetonius, Augustus 5. 1; for this composite picture and on childbirth in general see B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), passim, esp. pp. 99 –113, S. Dixon, The Roman Mother (1988), pp. 106–8, 237–40. See also the collection of papers in B. Rawson (ed.), Marriage, Divorce and Children in Ancient Rome (1991); for Julius Caesar and the election to pontifex maximus see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp. 124–6, and Suetonius, Caesar 59 on his lack of religious scruple; for the astrological questions posed by the date of Augustus’ birth and his later adoption of the sign of the capricorn see T. Barton, ‘Augustus and Capricorn: Astrological polyvalency and imperial rhetoric’, JRS 85 (1995), pp. 33–51.
3 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 1–12 for a series of omens, esp. 94. 3–4; Dio 45. 1. 2–3 repeats the story of the snake, probably using Suetonius directly or a common source.
4 For detailed discussion of the consuls and other senior magistracies, see A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999), pp. 94–120, esp. 104–9.
5 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 5, where it is claimed the noted religious expert and mystic Publius Nigidius Figulus made the prediction. Other stories involved Cicero and Quintus Lutatius Catulus in probably similar attempts to make them more credible. On the question of the chronology of the Catilinarian debates see the useful discussion in D. Stockton, Cicero. A Political Biography (1971), pp. 336–9, esp. 337.
6 See in general Rawson (2003), pp. 105–12.
7 For a general survey of the significance of Roman names see B. Salway, ‘What’s in a name? A survey of Roman onomastic practice from 700 BC–AD 700’, JRS 84 (1994), pp. 124–45, esp. 124–31. For a detailed and insightful analysis of Augustus’ names and practices in this period in general see R. Syme, ‘Imperator Caesar: A study in imperial nomenclature’, Historia 7 (1958), pp. 172–88 = Roman Papers Vol. 1 (1979), pp. 181–96.
8 Plutarch, Cato the Elder 20. 3. For a more detailed discussion of this topic see K. Bradley, ‘Wet-nursing at Rome. A Study in Social Relations’, in Rawson (1986), pp. 201–29.
9 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 6.
10 For Mithridates see P. Matyszak, Mithridates the Great. Rome’s Indomitable Enemy (2004), and A. Mayor, The Poison King (2010).
11 Suetonius, Caesar 13 for the comment to his mother, and see also Plutarch, Caesar 7, Dio 37. 1–3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 43. 3; in general see Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 124–7 = (2007), pp. 150–4.
12 For Caesar’s ancestry see Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 31–4 = (2007), pp. 37–41; on Catiline see Stockton (1971), pp. 73–8, 96–8, 100–07.
13 T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), pp. 149–76, 222–5, Stockton (1971), pp. 79–84.
14 In general see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 26–7, Stockton (1971), pp. 105–6, Mitchell (1979), pp. 226–32, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic Vol. 1 (1928), pp. 259–72; ‘resident alien’ (inquilinus civis urbis Romanam) see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 31. 9; also of relevance is Cicero’s Pro Murena, delivered in defence of one of the successful candidates who was then accused of bribery.
15 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 3 for the eagle.
16 Cicero, In Pisonem 6.
17 For the narrative of the Catilinarian conspiracy see Stockton (1971), pp. 110–42, Mitchell (1979), pp. 219–40; for Caesar’s role in the debate see M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman (1968), pp. 50–52, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 170–72 and Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 115–42 = (2007), pp. 144–72.
CHAPTER 2
1 Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 1–2 (Loeb translation).
2 Suetonius, Augustus 3, 5, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 1–2, Dio 45. 1. 1, Tacitus, Ann. 1. 9; for discussion of his wealth see I. Shatzman, Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics. Collection Latomus Vol. 142 (1975), p. 387, including fns 692 and 693, and in general E. Rawson, ‘The Ciceronian Aristocracy and its Properties’, in M. I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Roman Property (1976), pp. 85–102; excavation on the north-eastern side of the Palatine has revealed an aristocratic house occupied and remodelled in the second and first centuries BC and subsequently destroyed in Nero’s fire, which may possibly be the one owned by Octavius, see J. Patterson, ‘The City of Rome Revisited: From Mid-Republic to Mid-Empire’, JRS 100 (2010), pp. 210–32, esp. p. 223 fn. 112, with reference to recent Italian excavations in the area.
3 Suetonius, Augustus 1. 2. 2.
4 Suetonius, Augustus 2. 3–3. 1, Appian, BC 3. 23; the name C. Octavius appears on a banker’s loan chit or tessera and is most likely associated with Caius Octavius’ father. For a discussion of senators’ involvement in making loans, see Shatzman (1975), pp. 75–9.
5 Livy, Pers. 98 gives 900,000 as the total for the census conducted in 70–69 BC, although other sources make the total 10,000 higher, see E. Lo Cascio, ‘The Size of the Roman Population: Beloch and the Meaning of the Augustan Census Figures’, JRS 84 (1994), pp. 23–40 for a discussion. Totals for ancient populations remain highly controversial.
6 Plutarch, Crassus 2 for the claim that only a man capable of supporting an army could call himself rich; for his estates see Pliny, NH 33. 134, although contrast slighter lower estimate in Plutarch, Crassus 2 with comments in Shatzman (1975), pp. 375–8, and for Pompey pp. 389–93. For their careers in general see respectively A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), P. Greenhalgh, Pompey: The Roman Alexander (1980) and R. Seager, Pompey the Great. A Political Biography (2nd edn, 2002).
7 For Crassus’ use of money see Plutarch, Crassus 2–3; for senators in debt to him see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 48. 5–6; on the publicani in general see E. Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972).
8 Suetonius, Augustus 4. 1.
9 R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 112; relationship to Pompey, see Suetonius, Augustus 4. 1.
10 His age is conjectural, but based on the assumption that he held the quaestorship in 73 BC in the same year as Caius Toranius, with whom he was plebeian aedile, see ILS 47. However, since Toranius suffered a defeat at the hands of Spartacus (Sallust, Hist. 3. 46M, Florus 2. 8. 5), it is equally possible that his career slowed down, making them colleagues at a later stage. The evidence is collected in Broughton, MRR 2, p. 110.
11 For Caius Octavius’ career see ILS 47; for the numbers of legions in this period see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 (1971), pp. 446–72, estimating the lowest total at thirteen legions in 80 BC, and the highest at thirty-nine to forty legions in 71–70 BC.
12 On the quaestorship see Lintott (1999), pp. 133–7, and on the dating see n. 9 above; for Toranius and Spartacus see Sallust, Hist. 3. 46M, Florus 2. 8. 5.
13 Lintott (1999), pp. 129–33.
14 For an excellent recent survey of Caesar’s early career see E. Gruen, ‘Caesar as a politician’, in M. Griffin (ed.), A Companion to Julius Caesar (2009), pp. 23–36, and see also L. Taylor, ‘The Rise of Julius Caesar’, Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp. 10–18, and Gelzer (1968), p. 22, and in general Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 82–151 = (2007), pp. 61–183, and R. Billows, Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome (2009), pp. 56–110, who emphasises his consistent championing of popular causes. On the corona civica see Gellius, NA 5. 6. 13–14, Pliny NH 16. 12–13, and discussion in V. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (1981), pp. 70–74, 119–20.
15 For candidature and the electoral process in general see L. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), esp. pp. 50–75, and Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), esp. pp. 78–106, A. Lintott, ‘Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic’, JRS 80 (1990), pp. 1–16, F. Millar, The Crowd in the Late Roman Republic (1998), H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001), esp. pp. 63–89, A. Yakobson, ‘Petitio et Largitio: Popular participation in the centuriate assembly of the Late Republic’, JRS 8 (1992), pp. 32–52
16 Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 35. There is a general consensus that Quintus Cicero was the author of this work. His literary output was considerable, even though little has survived. While on campaign with Julius Caesar in Gaul he told his brother that he had written four tragedies in just sixteen days, Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 3. 5/6. 8
17 Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 25–6 (Loeb translation).
18 See Plutarch, Cato the Younger 8. 2; see Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 41–2 on the importance of a candidate learning names and, even when reminded, of seeming natural.
19 On Caesar’s stance see Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 119–45, esp. pp. 121–4 on the trial of Rabirius Postumus. For an emphasis on Caesar’s consistent espousal of popular causes as a major part of his success, see the arguments in Billows (2009), pp. 56–110.
20 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 60. 7–61. 4.
21 For a summary of Pompey’s career see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2004), pp. 152–80, for more detail see Seager (2002), pp. 20–38; his nickname, Valerius Maximus 6. 2. 8.
22 Suetonius, Caesar 15, Dio 37. 43. 1–4, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 26. 1–29. 2.
23 Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 45, 47–8 (Loeb translation).
24 The point is well made by Billows (2009), pp. 104–5.
25 For discussion see L. Ross Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies (1966), pp. 84–106.
26 Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 2 for coming first in the poll, with E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 118–19.
27 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 1. 21 (Loeb translation).
28 Suetonius, Caesar 11, Dio 37. 10. 1–3, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 17. 4–5.
29 Suetonius, Augustus 3. 1.
30 Catullus 10; Cicero, Verrines 1. 40.
31 Suetonius, Augustus 3. 2, 94. 5, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 2, ILS 47; for the requirement for 5,000 enemy dead see Valerius Maximus 2. 8. 1 and discussion in J. Richardson, ‘The triumph, the praetors and the Senate in the early second century BC’, JRS 65 (1976), pp. 50–63, esp. 61–2.
32 Tacitus Ann, 1. 9, Cicero, Philippics 3. 15 and Gruen (1974), p. 143, fn. 96.
CHAPTER 3
1 Caelius’ quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 9.
2 Suetonius, Augustus 8. 1, 27. 1, Nicolaus of Damascus 2, Appian, BC 4. 12.
3 Nicolaus of Damascus 3, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp. 127–8 and ‘Neglected children on the Ara Pacis’, American Journal of Archaeology 88 (1984), pp. 583–9, 586 fn. 17.
4 Octavius’ paedogogus see Dio 58. 33. 1, mentioning that Sphaerus was given a public funeral in 40 BC by his grateful former charge; Cicero, Orator 120; on childhood in general see B. Rawson (ed.), Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), esp. pp. 99–113; on education see H. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (1956), pp. 229–91, A. Gwynn, Roman Education (1926), esp. 1–32; Cicero, de re publica 4. 3; ‘an old and wealthy equestrian family’, see Suetonius, Augustus 2. 3.
5 Appian, BC 2. 9.
6 For discussion see R. Seager, Pompey the Great. A Political Biography (2002), pp. 72–9, and T. Wiseman in CAH2 IX, pp. 358–67.
7 For an especially blatant illustration of the power of auctoritas, see Valerius Maximus 3. 7. 8.
8 Seager (2002), pp. 79–82, M. Gelzer (trans. P. Needham), Caesar (1968), pp. 65–8; on the pay of soldiers, it is worth noting that Julius Caesar was able to double their salary without making them rich, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 26, and for a wider survey of the army at this time see R. Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army (1958).
9 See Cicero, ad Att. 1. 17. 9, 18. 3, 18. 7, 2. 1. 8, with E. Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972), pp. 101–4.
10 For the proconsulship in Spain and his return see in general Gelzer (1968), pp. 61–70, A. Goldsworthy, Caesar. The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp. 148–59 = (2007), pp. 179–95, Gruen, ‘Caesar as a politician’, in M. Griffin (ed.), A Companion to Julius Caesar (2009), pp. 23–36, esp. 29–31; for the ancient sources for Cato’s filibuster see Appian, BC 2. 8, Dio 37. 54. 1–2, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 18. 2 and Plutarch, Cato the Younger 31. 2–3, Caesar 13. 1.
11 Syme (1960), pp. 34–5.
12 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 3, 3–4.
13 For Julius Caesar’s consulship see L. Ross Taylor, ‘The dating of major legislation and elections in Caesar’s first consulship’, Historia 17 (1968), pp. 173–93, Gruen (2009), pp. 31–5, Gelzer (1968), pp. 71–101, C. Meier (trans. D. McLintock), Caesar (1996), pp. 204–23, Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 161–81 = (2007), pp. 196–220, R. Billows, Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome (2009), pp. 111–29, Seager (2002), pp. 86–100; the arrest of Cato, see Dio 38. 2. 1–3. 3. Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 4 and Plutarch, Cato the Younger 33. 1–2 give a slightly different version, apparently dating Cato’s arrest to another occasion rather than the debate on the land law.
14 Suetonius, Augustus 4. 1 for Atius Balbus as one of the twenty land commissioners.
15 On the rioting in the Forum see Dio 38. 6. 4–7. 2, Appian, BC 2. 11, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 32. 2–6, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 1; on Bibulus’ attempts to prevent legislation, see Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 2, Dio 38. 8. 2 with comments in Taylor (1968), pp. 177–9.
16 Suetonius, Julius Caesar 21, 50. 1–2, Plutarch, Pompey 47–48, Caesar 14 and Dio 38. 9. 1; ‘a husband to women and a wife to men’, see Suetonius, Julius Caesar 52. 3.
17 Taylor (1968), pp. 182–8 for discussion of the lex Vatinia granting Julius Caesar his command.
18 Nicolaus of Damascus 3; for general discussions of Roman education see n. 4.
19 Suetonius, Tiberius 2–3, Cicero, de natura deorum 2. 7 for Claudius Pulcher in the First Punic War. For Clodius in general see W. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999) passim, and on the Bona Dea scandal and his enmity towards Cicero see J. Balsdon, ‘Fabula Clodiana’, Historia 15 (1966), pp. 65–73; for a discussion of the family’s position in the first century BC see E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 97–100.
20 Dio 38. 12. 1–3, Cicero, de domo 41, ad Att. 8. 3, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 4, Plutarch, Caesar 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 76–8, Seager (2002), pp. 91–9.
21 For good surveys of the politics of these years see J. Ramsay, ‘The Proconsular Years: Politics at a Distance’, in Griffin (2009), pp. 37–56, and Wiseman in CAH2 IX, pp. 366–81, 385–408.
22 On the ‘conference’ of Luca and the confirmation of the alliance between Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar see Suetonius, Caesar 24. 1, Appian, BC 2. 17, Plutarch, Pompey 50, Caesar 21, Crassus 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp.120–24, Seager (2002), pp. 110–19, Meier (1996), pp. 270–73 and A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 262–88.
23 Julia’s miscarriage, see Plutarch, Pompey 53; Crassus’ departure from the City, see Cicero, ad Att. 4. 13, Plutarch, Crassus 16.
24 Suetonius, Julius Caesar 27. 1; for Carrhae and the death of Crassus the main sources are Plutarch, Crassus 17–33, and Dio 40. 12–30.
25 Clodius and Milo, see Gelzer (1968), pp. 145–52, Meier (1996), pp. 297–301 and Seager (2002), pp. 126–35.
26 Pompey as sole consul, see Plutarch, Pompey 54, Cato 47, Dio 40. 50. 4, Appian, BC 2. 23; on Pompey’s position and new marriage see Syme (1960), pp. 36–40, and on Cornelia see Plutarch, Pompey 55.
Josephus, AJ = Josephus, Jewish Antiquities
Josephus, BJ = Josephus, The Jewish War
JRA = Journal of Roman Archaeology
JRS = Journal of Roman Studies
Justin = Justinus, Epitome
Livy, Pers. = Livy, Roman History. Periochae.
OGIS = Dittenberger, W., Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae (1903–5).
Pliny the Elder, NH = Pliny the Elder, Natural History
Pliny the Younger, Epistulae = Pliny the Younger, Letters
Quintilian = Quintilian, Training in Oratory
Sallust, Bell. Cat. = Sallust, The Catilinarian War
Sallust, Bell. Jug. = Sallust, The Jugurthine War
Sallust, Hist. = Sallust, Histories
SEG. = Roussel, P., Tod, M., Ziebarth, E. & Hondius, J. (eds), Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum (1923–)
Serv. = Servius
Strabo, Geog. = Strabo, Geography
Tacitus, Ann. = Tacitus, Annals
Valerius Maximus = Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings
Velleius Paterculus = Velleius Paterculus, Roman History
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1 Luke 2: 1–3.
2 The more recent HBO Rome (2006–07) mini-series gave the young Octavius a slightly more sympathetic character, although when a different actor took over as the older version he became colder and more calculating. His sadism was also made more than a hint, as when he tells his new bride Livia that it will give him pleasure to hurt her when they make love.
3 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, 4. 1. 1.
4 Among the recent short studies of Augustus and his era, the best are D. Shotter, Augustus Caesar (2nd edn, 1991), W. Eck, The Age of Augustus (2003), K. Galinsky, Augustus. Introduction to the Life of an Emperor (2012), J. Richardson, Augustan Rome 44 BC to AD 14. The Restoration of the Republic and the Establishment of the Empire (2012); of popular accounts, R. Holland, Augustus. Godfather of Europe (2004) focuses mainly on the years up to Actium, while A. Everitt, Augustus: The Life of Rome’s First Emperor (2006) is drawn to this era and the later struggle for succession.
5 Julian, Caesars 309 B-C; for brief discussion see K. Galinsky, Augustan Culture (1996), p. 373.
6 For a useful survey of historians’ attitudes to Augustus see Z. Yavetz, ‘The Res Gestae and Augustus’ public image’, in F. Millar & E. Segal (eds), Caesar Augustus. Seven Aspects (1990), pp. 1–36, esp. pp. 22–6, and also J. Edmondson (ed.) Augustus (2009), pp. 14–26.
7 For discussions of some of the principal sources, see F. Millar, A Study of Cassius Dio (1964), A. Wallace-Hadrill, Suetonius (2nd edn, 1995), C. Pelling, Plutarch and History (2002), C. Smith & A. Powell (eds), The Lost Memoirs of Augustus and the Development of Roman Autobiography (2009), R. Syme, Tacitus (2 vols,1958), and R. Mellor, Tacitus (1993).
CHAPTER 1
1 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 5.
2 For the date, see Suetonius, Augustus 5. 1; for this composite picture and on childbirth in general see B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), passim, esp. pp. 99 –113, S. Dixon, The Roman Mother (1988), pp. 106–8, 237–40. See also the collection of papers in B. Rawson (ed.), Marriage, Divorce and Children in Ancient Rome (1991); for Julius Caesar and the election to pontifex maximus see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp. 124–6, and Suetonius, Caesar 59 on his lack of religious scruple; for the astrological questions posed by the date of Augustus’ birth and his later adoption of the sign of the capricorn see T. Barton, ‘Augustus and Capricorn: Astrological polyvalency and imperial rhetoric’, JRS 85 (1995), pp. 33–51.
3 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 1–12 for a series of omens, esp. 94. 3–4; Dio 45. 1. 2–3 repeats the story of the snake, probably using Suetonius directly or a common source.
4 For detailed discussion of the consuls and other senior magistracies, see A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999), pp. 94–120, esp. 104–9.
5 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 5, where it is claimed the noted religious expert and mystic Publius Nigidius Figulus made the prediction. Other stories involved Cicero and Quintus Lutatius Catulus in probably similar attempts to make them more credible. On the question of the chronology of the Catilinarian debates see the useful discussion in D. Stockton, Cicero. A Political Biography (1971), pp. 336–9, esp. 337.
6 See in general Rawson (2003), pp. 105–12.
7 For a general survey of the significance of Roman names see B. Salway, ‘What’s in a name? A survey of Roman onomastic practice from 700 BC–AD 700’, JRS 84 (1994), pp. 124–45, esp. 124–31. For a detailed and insightful analysis of Augustus’ names and practices in this period in general see R. Syme, ‘Imperator Caesar: A study in imperial nomenclature’, Historia 7 (1958), pp. 172–88 = Roman Papers Vol. 1 (1979), pp. 181–96.
8 Plutarch, Cato the Elder 20. 3. For a more detailed discussion of this topic see K. Bradley, ‘Wet-nursing at Rome. A Study in Social Relations’, in Rawson (1986), pp. 201–29.
9 Suetonius, Augustus 94. 6.
10 For Mithridates see P. Matyszak, Mithridates the Great. Rome’s Indomitable Enemy (2004), and A. Mayor, The Poison King (2010).
11 Suetonius, Caesar 13 for the comment to his mother, and see also Plutarch, Caesar 7, Dio 37. 1–3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 43. 3; in general see Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 124–7 = (2007), pp. 150–4.
12 For Caesar’s ancestry see Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 31–4 = (2007), pp. 37–41; on Catiline see Stockton (1971), pp. 73–8, 96–8, 100–07.
13 T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), pp. 149–76, 222–5, Stockton (1971), pp. 79–84.
14 In general see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 26–7, Stockton (1971), pp. 105–6, Mitchell (1979), pp. 226–32, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic Vol. 1 (1928), pp. 259–72; ‘resident alien’ (inquilinus civis urbis Romanam) see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 31. 9; also of relevance is Cicero’s Pro Murena, delivered in defence of one of the successful candidates who was then accused of bribery.
15 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 3 for the eagle.
16 Cicero, In Pisonem 6.
17 For the narrative of the Catilinarian conspiracy see Stockton (1971), pp. 110–42, Mitchell (1979), pp. 219–40; for Caesar’s role in the debate see M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman (1968), pp. 50–52, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 170–72 and Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 115–42 = (2007), pp. 144–72.
CHAPTER 2
1 Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 1–2 (Loeb translation).
2 Suetonius, Augustus 3, 5, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 1–2, Dio 45. 1. 1, Tacitus, Ann. 1. 9; for discussion of his wealth see I. Shatzman, Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics. Collection Latomus Vol. 142 (1975), p. 387, including fns 692 and 693, and in general E. Rawson, ‘The Ciceronian Aristocracy and its Properties’, in M. I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Roman Property (1976), pp. 85–102; excavation on the north-eastern side of the Palatine has revealed an aristocratic house occupied and remodelled in the second and first centuries BC and subsequently destroyed in Nero’s fire, which may possibly be the one owned by Octavius, see J. Patterson, ‘The City of Rome Revisited: From Mid-Republic to Mid-Empire’, JRS 100 (2010), pp. 210–32, esp. p. 223 fn. 112, with reference to recent Italian excavations in the area.
3 Suetonius, Augustus 1. 2. 2.
4 Suetonius, Augustus 2. 3–3. 1, Appian, BC 3. 23; the name C. Octavius appears on a banker’s loan chit or tessera and is most likely associated with Caius Octavius’ father. For a discussion of senators’ involvement in making loans, see Shatzman (1975), pp. 75–9.
5 Livy, Pers. 98 gives 900,000 as the total for the census conducted in 70–69 BC, although other sources make the total 10,000 higher, see E. Lo Cascio, ‘The Size of the Roman Population: Beloch and the Meaning of the Augustan Census Figures’, JRS 84 (1994), pp. 23–40 for a discussion. Totals for ancient populations remain highly controversial.
6 Plutarch, Crassus 2 for the claim that only a man capable of supporting an army could call himself rich; for his estates see Pliny, NH 33. 134, although contrast slighter lower estimate in Plutarch, Crassus 2 with comments in Shatzman (1975), pp. 375–8, and for Pompey pp. 389–93. For their careers in general see respectively A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), P. Greenhalgh, Pompey: The Roman Alexander (1980) and R. Seager, Pompey the Great. A Political Biography (2nd edn, 2002).
7 For Crassus’ use of money see Plutarch, Crassus 2–3; for senators in debt to him see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 48. 5–6; on the publicani in general see E. Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972).
8 Suetonius, Augustus 4. 1.
9 R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 112; relationship to Pompey, see Suetonius, Augustus 4. 1.
10 His age is conjectural, but based on the assumption that he held the quaestorship in 73 BC in the same year as Caius Toranius, with whom he was plebeian aedile, see ILS 47. However, since Toranius suffered a defeat at the hands of Spartacus (Sallust, Hist. 3. 46M, Florus 2. 8. 5), it is equally possible that his career slowed down, making them colleagues at a later stage. The evidence is collected in Broughton, MRR 2, p. 110.
11 For Caius Octavius’ career see ILS 47; for the numbers of legions in this period see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 (1971), pp. 446–72, estimating the lowest total at thirteen legions in 80 BC, and the highest at thirty-nine to forty legions in 71–70 BC.
12 On the quaestorship see Lintott (1999), pp. 133–7, and on the dating see n. 9 above; for Toranius and Spartacus see Sallust, Hist. 3. 46M, Florus 2. 8. 5.
13 Lintott (1999), pp. 129–33.
14 For an excellent recent survey of Caesar’s early career see E. Gruen, ‘Caesar as a politician’, in M. Griffin (ed.), A Companion to Julius Caesar (2009), pp. 23–36, and see also L. Taylor, ‘The Rise of Julius Caesar’, Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp. 10–18, and Gelzer (1968), p. 22, and in general Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 82–151 = (2007), pp. 61–183, and R. Billows, Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome (2009), pp. 56–110, who emphasises his consistent championing of popular causes. On the corona civica see Gellius, NA 5. 6. 13–14, Pliny NH 16. 12–13, and discussion in V. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (1981), pp. 70–74, 119–20.
15 For candidature and the electoral process in general see L. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), esp. pp. 50–75, and Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), esp. pp. 78–106, A. Lintott, ‘Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic’, JRS 80 (1990), pp. 1–16, F. Millar, The Crowd in the Late Roman Republic (1998), H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001), esp. pp. 63–89, A. Yakobson, ‘Petitio et Largitio: Popular participation in the centuriate assembly of the Late Republic’, JRS 8 (1992), pp. 32–52
16 Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 35. There is a general consensus that Quintus Cicero was the author of this work. His literary output was considerable, even though little has survived. While on campaign with Julius Caesar in Gaul he told his brother that he had written four tragedies in just sixteen days, Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 3. 5/6. 8
17 Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 25–6 (Loeb translation).
18 See Plutarch, Cato the Younger 8. 2; see Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 41–2 on the importance of a candidate learning names and, even when reminded, of seeming natural.
19 On Caesar’s stance see Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 119–45, esp. pp. 121–4 on the trial of Rabirius Postumus. For an emphasis on Caesar’s consistent espousal of popular causes as a major part of his success, see the arguments in Billows (2009), pp. 56–110.
20 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 60. 7–61. 4.
21 For a summary of Pompey’s career see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2004), pp. 152–80, for more detail see Seager (2002), pp. 20–38; his nickname, Valerius Maximus 6. 2. 8.
22 Suetonius, Caesar 15, Dio 37. 43. 1–4, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 26. 1–29. 2.
23 Q. Cicero, Handbook on Electioneering 45, 47–8 (Loeb translation).
24 The point is well made by Billows (2009), pp. 104–5.
25 For discussion see L. Ross Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies (1966), pp. 84–106.
26 Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 2 for coming first in the poll, with E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 118–19.
27 Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 1. 21 (Loeb translation).
28 Suetonius, Caesar 11, Dio 37. 10. 1–3, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 17. 4–5.
29 Suetonius, Augustus 3. 1.
30 Catullus 10; Cicero, Verrines 1. 40.
31 Suetonius, Augustus 3. 2, 94. 5, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 2, ILS 47; for the requirement for 5,000 enemy dead see Valerius Maximus 2. 8. 1 and discussion in J. Richardson, ‘The triumph, the praetors and the Senate in the early second century BC’, JRS 65 (1976), pp. 50–63, esp. 61–2.
32 Tacitus Ann, 1. 9, Cicero, Philippics 3. 15 and Gruen (1974), p. 143, fn. 96.
CHAPTER 3
1 Caelius’ quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 9.
2 Suetonius, Augustus 8. 1, 27. 1, Nicolaus of Damascus 2, Appian, BC 4. 12.
3 Nicolaus of Damascus 3, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp. 127–8 and ‘Neglected children on the Ara Pacis’, American Journal of Archaeology 88 (1984), pp. 583–9, 586 fn. 17.
4 Octavius’ paedogogus see Dio 58. 33. 1, mentioning that Sphaerus was given a public funeral in 40 BC by his grateful former charge; Cicero, Orator 120; on childhood in general see B. Rawson (ed.), Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), esp. pp. 99–113; on education see H. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (1956), pp. 229–91, A. Gwynn, Roman Education (1926), esp. 1–32; Cicero, de re publica 4. 3; ‘an old and wealthy equestrian family’, see Suetonius, Augustus 2. 3.
5 Appian, BC 2. 9.
6 For discussion see R. Seager, Pompey the Great. A Political Biography (2002), pp. 72–9, and T. Wiseman in CAH2 IX, pp. 358–67.
7 For an especially blatant illustration of the power of auctoritas, see Valerius Maximus 3. 7. 8.
8 Seager (2002), pp. 79–82, M. Gelzer (trans. P. Needham), Caesar (1968), pp. 65–8; on the pay of soldiers, it is worth noting that Julius Caesar was able to double their salary without making them rich, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 26, and for a wider survey of the army at this time see R. Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army (1958).
9 See Cicero, ad Att. 1. 17. 9, 18. 3, 18. 7, 2. 1. 8, with E. Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972), pp. 101–4.
10 For the proconsulship in Spain and his return see in general Gelzer (1968), pp. 61–70, A. Goldsworthy, Caesar. The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp. 148–59 = (2007), pp. 179–95, Gruen, ‘Caesar as a politician’, in M. Griffin (ed.), A Companion to Julius Caesar (2009), pp. 23–36, esp. 29–31; for the ancient sources for Cato’s filibuster see Appian, BC 2. 8, Dio 37. 54. 1–2, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 18. 2 and Plutarch, Cato the Younger 31. 2–3, Caesar 13. 1.
11 Syme (1960), pp. 34–5.
12 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 3, 3–4.
13 For Julius Caesar’s consulship see L. Ross Taylor, ‘The dating of major legislation and elections in Caesar’s first consulship’, Historia 17 (1968), pp. 173–93, Gruen (2009), pp. 31–5, Gelzer (1968), pp. 71–101, C. Meier (trans. D. McLintock), Caesar (1996), pp. 204–23, Goldsworthy (2006), pp. 161–81 = (2007), pp. 196–220, R. Billows, Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome (2009), pp. 111–29, Seager (2002), pp. 86–100; the arrest of Cato, see Dio 38. 2. 1–3. 3. Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 4 and Plutarch, Cato the Younger 33. 1–2 give a slightly different version, apparently dating Cato’s arrest to another occasion rather than the debate on the land law.
14 Suetonius, Augustus 4. 1 for Atius Balbus as one of the twenty land commissioners.
15 On the rioting in the Forum see Dio 38. 6. 4–7. 2, Appian, BC 2. 11, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 32. 2–6, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 1; on Bibulus’ attempts to prevent legislation, see Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 2, Dio 38. 8. 2 with comments in Taylor (1968), pp. 177–9.
16 Suetonius, Julius Caesar 21, 50. 1–2, Plutarch, Pompey 47–48, Caesar 14 and Dio 38. 9. 1; ‘a husband to women and a wife to men’, see Suetonius, Julius Caesar 52. 3.
17 Taylor (1968), pp. 182–8 for discussion of the lex Vatinia granting Julius Caesar his command.
18 Nicolaus of Damascus 3; for general discussions of Roman education see n. 4.
19 Suetonius, Tiberius 2–3, Cicero, de natura deorum 2. 7 for Claudius Pulcher in the First Punic War. For Clodius in general see W. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999) passim, and on the Bona Dea scandal and his enmity towards Cicero see J. Balsdon, ‘Fabula Clodiana’, Historia 15 (1966), pp. 65–73; for a discussion of the family’s position in the first century BC see E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp. 97–100.
20 Dio 38. 12. 1–3, Cicero, de domo 41, ad Att. 8. 3, Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 4, Plutarch, Caesar 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp. 76–8, Seager (2002), pp. 91–9.
21 For good surveys of the politics of these years see J. Ramsay, ‘The Proconsular Years: Politics at a Distance’, in Griffin (2009), pp. 37–56, and Wiseman in CAH2 IX, pp. 366–81, 385–408.
22 On the ‘conference’ of Luca and the confirmation of the alliance between Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar see Suetonius, Caesar 24. 1, Appian, BC 2. 17, Plutarch, Pompey 50, Caesar 21, Crassus 14; see also Gelzer (1968), pp.120–24, Seager (2002), pp. 110–19, Meier (1996), pp. 270–73 and A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 262–88.
23 Julia’s miscarriage, see Plutarch, Pompey 53; Crassus’ departure from the City, see Cicero, ad Att. 4. 13, Plutarch, Crassus 16.
24 Suetonius, Julius Caesar 27. 1; for Carrhae and the death of Crassus the main sources are Plutarch, Crassus 17–33, and Dio 40. 12–30.
25 Clodius and Milo, see Gelzer (1968), pp. 145–52, Meier (1996), pp. 297–301 and Seager (2002), pp. 126–35.
26 Pompey as sole consul, see Plutarch, Pompey 54, Cato 47, Dio 40. 50. 4, Appian, BC 2. 23; on Pompey’s position and new marriage see Syme (1960), pp. 36–40, and on Cornelia see Plutarch, Pompey 55.
