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15. Hotz, J., Fehlmann, B., Papassotiropoulos, A., de Quervain, D. J., & Schicktanz, N. S. (2021). Cannabidiol enhances verbal episodic memory in healthy young participants: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 143, 327–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.09.007
16. Gruber, S. A., Sagar, K. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Gonenc, A., Smith, R. T., Lambros, A. M., Cabrera, K. B., & Lukas, S. E. (2018). The grass might be greener: Medical marijuana patients exhibit altered brain activity and improved executive function after 3 months of treatment. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 8, 983. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00983
17. Laws, K. R., & Kokkalis, J. (2007). Ecstasy (MDMA) and memory function: A meta-analytic update. Human Psychopharmacology, 22(6), 381–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.857
18. Daumann, J., Fischermann, T., Heekeren, K., Henke, K., Thron, A., & Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. (2005). Memory-related hippocampal dysfunction in poly-drug ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) users. Psychopharmacology, 180(4), 607–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-004-2002-8
19. Moon, M., Do, K. S., Park, J., & Kim, D. (2007). Memory impairment in methamphetamine-dependent patients. International Journal of Neuroscience, 117(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450500535503
20. Gruber, S. A., Tzilos, G. K., Silveri, M. M., Pollack, M., Renshaw, P. F., Kaufman, M. J., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2006). Methadone maintenance improves cognitive performance after two months of treatment. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.14.2.157
21. Healy, C. J. (2021). The acute effects of classic psychedelics on memory in humans. Psychopharmacology, 238, 639–653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-020-05756-w
Chapter 20: Sleep well
1. Cirelli, C., & Tononi, G. (2017). The sleeping brain. Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science, 2017, cer-07-17.
2. Mander, B. A., Santhanam, S., Saletin, J. M., & Walker, M. P. (2011). Wake deterioration and sleep restoration of human learning. Current Biology, 21(5), R183–R184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.019
3. Walker, M. (2017). Why we sleep. Scribner.
4. Rudoy, J. D., Voss, J. L., Westerberg, C. E., & Paller, K. A. (2009). Strengthening individual memories by reactivating them during sleep. Science, 326(5956), 1079. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1179013
5. Hu, X., Cheng, L. Y., Chiu, M. H., & Paller, K. A. (2020). Promoting memory consolidation during sleep: A meta-analysis of targeted memory reactivation. Psychological Bulletin, 146(3), 218–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000223
6. Sanders, K., Osburn, S., Paller, K. A., & Beeman, M. (2019). Targeted memory reactivation during sleep improves next-day problem solving. Psychological Science, 30(11), 1616–1624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619873344
7. Wassing, R., Lakbila-Kamal, O., Ramautar, J. R., Stoffers, D., Schalkwijk, F., & Van Someren, E. (2019). Restless REM sleep impedes overnight amygdala adaptation. Current Biology, 29(14), 2351–2358.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.034
8. Cartwright, R., Young, M. A., Mercer, P., & Bears, M. (1998). Role of REM sleep and dream variables in the prediction of remission from depression. Psychiatry Research, 80(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-1781(98)00071-7
9. Robbins, R., Quan, S. F., Weaver, M. D., Bormes, G., Barger, L. K., & Czeisler, C. A. (2021). Examining sleep deficiency and disturbance and their risk for incident dementia and all-cause mortality in older adults across 5 years in the United States. Aging, 13(3), 3254–3268. https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.202591
10. Lim, A. S., Kowgier, M., Yu, L., Buchman, A. S., & Bennett, D. A. (2013). Sleep fragmentation and the risk of incident Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive decline in older persons. Sleep, 36(7), 1027–1032. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.2802
11. Lim, A. S., Yu, L., Kowgier, M., Schneider, J. A., Buchman, A. S., & Bennett, D. A. (2013). Modification of the relationship of the apolipoprotein E ε4 allele to the risk of Alzheimer disease and neurofibrillary tangle density by sleep. JAMA Neurology, 70(12), 1544–1551. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.4215
12. Patterson, P. D., Ghen, J. D., Antoon, S. F., Martin-Gill, C., Guyette, F. X., Weiss, P. M., Turner, R. L., & Buysse, D. J. (2019). Does evidence support “banking/extending sleep” by shift workers to mitigate fatigue, and/or to improve health, safety, or performance? A systematic review. Sleep Health, 5(4), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2019.03.001
13. Dewald, J. F., Meijer, A. M., Oort, F. J., Kerkhof, G. A., & Bögels, S. M. (2010). The influence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(3), 179–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.004
14. Seoane, H. A., Moschetto, L., Orliacq, F., Orliacq, J., Serrano, E., Cazenave, M. I., Vigo, D. E., & Perez-Lloret, S. (2020). Sleep disruption in medicine students and its relationship with impaired academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 53, 101333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101333
15. Okano, K., Kaczmarzyk, J. R., Dave, N., Gabrieli, J., & Grossman, J. C. (2019). Sleep quality, duration, and consistency are associated with better academic performance in college students. NPJ Science of Learning, 4, 16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-019-0055-z
16. Huedo-Medina, T. B., Kirsch, I., Middlemass, J., Klonizakis, M., & Siriwardena, A. N. (2012). Effectiveness of non-benzodiazepine hypnotics in treatment of adult insomnia: Meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 345, e8343. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e8343
17. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/public/sleep/healthy_sleep.pdf
Chapter 21: Activities, attitude, music, mindfulness, and brain training
1. Matsuzawa, T. (2013). Evolution of the brain and social behavior in chimpanzees. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(3), 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.012
2. Krell-Roesch, J., Syrjanen, J. A., Vassilaki, M., Machulda, M. M., Mielke, M. M., Knopman, D. S., Kremers, W. K., Petersen, R. C., & Geda, Y. E. (2019). Quantity and quality of mental activities and the risk of incident mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 93(6), e548–e558. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000007897
3. James, B. D., Wilson, R. S., Barnes, L. L., & Bennett, D. A. (2011). Late-life social activity and cognitive decline in old age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(6), 998–1005. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711000531
4. Wilson, R. S., Boyle, P. A., James, B. D., Leurgans, S. E., Buchman, A. S., & Bennett, D. A. (2014). Negative social interactions and risk of mild cognitive impairment in old age. Neuropsychology, 29(4), 561–570. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000154
5. Sachs, M. E., Habibi, A., Damasio, A., & Kaplan, J. T. (2020). Dynamic intersubject neural synchronization reflects affective responses to sad music. NeuroImage, 218, 116512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116512
6. Toiviainen, P., Burunat, I., Brattico, E., Vuust, P., & Alluri, V. (2020). The chronnectome of musical beat. NeuroImage, 216, 116191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116191
7. Wu, K., Anderson, J., Townsend, J., Frazier, T., Brandt, A., & Karmonik, C. (2019). Characterization of functional brain connectivity towards optimization of music selection for therapy: A fMRI study. International Journal of Neuroscience, 129(9), 882–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207454.2019.1581189
8. Mehegan, L., & Rainville, G. (2020, June). Music nourishes and delights: 2020 AARP Music and Brain Health Survey. https://doi.org/10.26419/res.00387.001
9. Gómez Gallego, M., & Gómez García, J. (2017). Music therapy and Alzheimer’s disease: Cognitive, psychological, and behavioural effects. Neurologia, 32(5), 300–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrl.2015.12.003
10. Alive Inside: A Story of Music and Memory. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alive_Inside:_A_Story_of_Music_and_Memory&oldid=991942258
11. Predovan, D., Julien, A., Esmail, A., & Bherer, L. (2019). Effects of dancing on cognition in healthy older adults: A systematic review. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 3(2), 161–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0103-2
12. Echaide, C., Del Río, D., & Pacios, J. (2019). The differential effect of background music on memory for verbal and visuospatial information. Journal of General Psychology, 146(4), 443–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2019.1602023
13. Gallant. S. N. (2016). Mindfulness meditation practice and executive functioning: Breaking down the benefit. Consciousness and Cognition, 40, 116–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.01.005
14. Brown, K. W., Goodman, R. J., Ryan, R. M., & Anālayo, B. (2016). Mindfulness enhances episodic memory performance: Evidence from a multimethod investigation. PLoS One, 11(4), e0153309. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153309
15. Isbel, B., Weber, J., Lagopoulos, J., Stefanidis, K., Anderson, H., & Summers, M. J. (2020). Neural changes in early visual processing after 6 months of mindfulness training in older adults. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 21163. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78343-w
16. Levy, B. R., Zonderman, A. B., Slade, M. D., & Ferrucci, L. (2012). Memory shaped by age stereotypes over time. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(4), 432–436. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr120
17. Levy, B. R., & Myers, L. M. (2004). Preventive health behaviors influenced by self-perceptions of aging. Preventive Medicine, 39(3), 625–629. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.02.029
18. Barber, S. J. (2020). The applied implications of age-based stereotype threat for older adults. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(3), 274–285, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.05.002
19. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
20. Krell-Roesch, J., Syrjanen, J. A., Vassilaki, M., Machulda, M. M., Mielke, M. M., Knopman, D. S., Kremers, W. K., Petersen, R. C., & Geda, Y. E. (2019). Quantity and quality of mental activities and the risk of incident mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 93(6), e548–e558. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000007897
21. Fritsch, T., Smyth, K. A., Debanne, S. M., Petot, G. J., & Friedland, R. P. (2005). Participation in novelty-seeking leisure activities and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 18(3), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891988705277537
22. Tranter, L. J., & Koutstaal, W. (2008). Age and flexible thinking: An experimental demonstration of the beneficial effects of increased cognitively stimulating activity on fluid intelligence in healthy older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 15(2), 184–207. doi:10.1080/13825580701322163
23. Lindstrom, H. A., Fritsch, T., Petot, G., Smyth, K. A., Chen, C. H., Debanne, S. M., Lerner, A. J., & Friedland, R. P. (2005). The relationships between television viewing in midlife and the development of Alzheimer’s disease in a case-control study. Brain and Cognition, 58(2), 157–165. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.020
24. Sharifian, N., & Zahodne, L. B. (2021). Daily associations between social media use and memory failures: The mediating role of negative affect. Journal of General Psychology, 148(1), 67–83. doi:10.1080/00221309.2020.1743228
25. Federal Trade Commission. (2015, April 9). FTC approves final order barring company from making unsubstantiated claims related to products’ “brain training” capabilities. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2015/04/ftc-approves-final-order-barring-company-making-unsubstantiated
26. Federal Trade Commission. (2016, January 5). Lumosity to pay $2 million to settle FTC deceptive advertising charges for its “Brain Training” program: Company claimed program would sharpen performance in everyday life and protect against cognitive decline. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2016/01/lumosity-pay-2-million-settle-ftc-deceptive-advertising-charges
27. West, R. K., Rabin, L. A., Silverman, J. M., Moshier, E., Sano, M., & Beeri, M. S. (2020). Short-term computerized cognitive training does not improve cognition compared to an active control in non-demented adults aged 80 years and above. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(1), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610219000267
28. Lee, H. K., Kent, J. D., Wendel, C., Wolinsky, F. D., Foster, E. D., Merzenich, M. M., & Voss, M. W. (2020). Home-based, adaptive cognitive training for cognitively normal older adults: Initial efficacy trial. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 75(6), 1144–1154. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz073
29. Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. (2016). Do “brain-training” programs work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(3), 103–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983
Chapter 22: Memory aids
1. Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Belknap Press, an imprint of Harvard University Press.
2. Lorayne, H. (2010). Ageless memory: The memory expert’s prescription for a razor-sharp mind. Black Dog & Leventhal.
3. Foer, J. (2011). Moonwalking with Einstein: The art and science of remembering everything. Penguin Press.
4. Budson, A. E., & O’Connor, M. K. (2017). Seven steps to managing your memory: What’s normal, what’s not, and what to do about it. Oxford University Press.
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_management#The_Eisenhower_Method
Chapter 25: Advanced strategies and mnemonics
1. Foer, J. (2011). Moonwalking with Einstein: The art and science of remembering everything. Penguin Press.
2. https://danielkilov.com/2014/05/05/the-memory-systems-of-mark-twain/
3. https://timeonline.uoregon.edu/twain/pleasures.php
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic_major_system#History Accessed 4/17/2021
5. Lorayne, H. (2010). Ageless memory: The memory expert’s prescription for a razor-sharp mind. Black Dog & Leventhal.
6. Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Belknap Press, an imprint of Harvard University Press.
7. https://archive.org/details/adcherenniumdera00capluoft/page/218/mode/2up
About the authors
Andrew E. Budson received his bachelor’s degree at Haverford College, where he majored in both chemistry and philosophy. After graduating cum laude from Harvard Medical School, he was an intern in internal medicine at Brigham and Women’s Hospital. He then attended the Harvard-Longwood Neurology Residency Program, for which he was chosen to be chief resident in his senior year. He next pursued a fellowship in behavioral neurology and dementia at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, after which he joined the neurology department there. He participated in numerous clinical trials of new drugs to treat Alzheimer’s disease in his role as the Associate Medical Director of Clinical Trials for Alzheimer’s Disease at Brigham and Women’s Hospital. Following his clinical training he spent three years studying memory as a post-doctoral fellow in experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience at Harvard University under Professor Daniel Schacter. After five years as Assistant Professor of Neurology at Harvard Medical School, he joined the Boston University Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center and the Geriatric Research Education Clinical Center (GRECC) at the Bedford Veterans Affairs Hospital. During his five years at the Bedford GRECC he served in several roles, including the Director of Outpatient Services, Associate Clinical Director, and later the overall GRECC Director. In 2010 he moved to the Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, where he is currently the Associate Chief of Staff for Education, Chief of Cognitive & Behavioral Neurology, and Director of the Center for Translational Cognitive Neuroscience. He is also the overall Associate Director and Leader of Outreach, Recruitment, and Education at the Boston University Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Professor of Neurology at Boston University School of Medicine, and Lecturer in Neurology at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Budson has had National Institutes of Health and other government research funding since 1998, receiving a National Research Service Award and a Career Development Award (K23) in addition to Research Project (R01) and VA Merit grants. He has given over 750 local, national, and international grand rounds and other academic talks, including at the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Queen Square, London; Berlin, Germany; and Cambridge University, England. He has published 9 books and over 150 papers in peer-reviewed journals, including The New England Journal of Medicine, Brain, and Cortex, and is a reviewer for more than 50 journals. He was awarded the Norman Geschwind Prize in Behavioral Neurology in 2008 and the Research Award in Geriatric Neurology in 2009, both from the American Academy of Neurology. His current research uses the techniques of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience to understand memory and memory distortions in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other neurological disorders. In his Memory Disorders Clinic at the Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System he treats patients while teaching medical students, residents, and fellows. He also sees patients at the Boston Center for Memory in Newton, Massachusetts. When not working or writing, he enjoys spending time with his family, traveling, running, skiing, kayaking, biking, and practicing yoga.
Elizabeth A. Kensinger is currently Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience at Boston College, where she has directed the Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience laboratory since 2006. She graduated summa cum laude from Harvard University, with a joint degree in psychology and biology, and she completed a Ph.D. in neuroscience at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, supported by a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Predoctoral Fellowship. After post-doctoral training at Harvard University and the Massachusetts General Hospital, supported by fellowships from the Massachusetts Biomedical Research Corporation and the National Institute of Mental Health, she secured her faculty appointment at Boston College. There, she teaches courses on human memory and affective neuroscience, and engages students in research practice. Over the years she has mentored dozens of post-doctoral fellows and graduate students, and over 100 undergraduate students. Most of her laboratory members have gone on to careers in academia, but she can tout that her undergraduate research assistants have leveraged their training for use in careers literally ranging from A (advertising) to Z (zoology). Dr. Kensinger has published over 200 research articles and has served as Associate Editor of Emotion and Cognition and Emotion, and as a founding Associate Editor of Affective Science. She has received awards from the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, the Association for Psychological Science, and the American Psychological Association, and she had the honor of serving as Chair of the Program Committee for the former two societies. Her research is funded by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, and her laboratory also has recently been supported by funding from the McKnight Endowment Fund for Neuroscience, the Retirement Research Foundation, and the American Federation for Aging Research. Her laboratory also has benefited from a gift by members of the Boston College Class of 1991 to support research on learning and memory conducted to improve the educational experience for students with memory challenges. Her research combines multiple methods (functional magnetic resonance imaging, event-related potentials, polysomnography, psychophysiology, eye-tracking) to answer questions such as: Why do we remember some moments from our past, such as those imbued with emotion, better than others? Why is sleep so important for memory? How does memory change as adults get older, and what can we do to minimize the negative impact of those changes? When not in the laboratory or classroom, she is most likely to be found baking and decorating cakes or spending time outdoors with her husband and daughter. They especially enjoy spending time in the mountains of New England, where their daughter is sometimes challenged to keep pace on hikes up the mountains, and Elizabeth is always challenged to catch up with their daughter while skiing down them.
