Why We Forget and How to Remember Better, page 12
This is a key reason why exam anxiety can be so disruptive to a student’s ability to show what they have learned in a class. The stress will make it much harder for the student to retrieve the needed content from their days of studying. At the same time, that stress is likely to sear the exam-taking experience into the student’s memory: “The teacher announced only 10 minutes remaining. There I sat, unable to figure out the right answer.” This experience can, in turn, provoke anxiety as the next exam approaches, creating a vicious cycle of stress-induced poor memory retrieval.
Never the Same Way
Let’s turn to another key feature of memory: You tend not to remember the same event in exactly the same way twice. Each retrieval is slightly different, because each time you rebuild a memory, you approach its construction in a slightly different way.3 Sometimes the differences are so subtle that they may be impossible to notice. At other times, they may give rise to a completely different interpretation of a past event or emphasize a very different part of the content.
Let’s try an exercise for a minute. Think back to a special event that occurred when you were in high school. Perhaps it was a dance, an important game, an assembly, or graduation day. Spend a moment trying to bring all the features to mind.
You may have focused on any number of details: the clothes you were wearing or the way your surroundings looked, the people you were with or the topics of conversation, the emotions you were experiencing or the thoughts running through your mind. It is unlikely that any single retrieval would include all possible details; we rarely use each and every feature to rebuild the memory. Each time we rebuild the memory, we use a slightly different subset of features, and we create a new structure to represent the memory.4 For these reasons, the details you focus on now may differ from the details you focused on at other times when you brought this memory to mind.
What Guides How Memories Are Reassembled?
Sometimes it’s hard to pinpoint reasons for the differences between one retrieval and another. Why did Elizabeth remember picking out the dress she had worn under her polyester royal blue graduation gown today, when she hadn’t thought of that detail in years? Other times, the reasons are more obvious. When Elizabeth described her high school graduation to her young daughter—who was about to participate in a preschool graduation ceremony—her memory focused primarily on logistics and feelings: Elizabeth shared with her daughter how she had walked from one end of the stage to the other and shook the hand of her principal while accepting her diploma, and how she had initially felt nervous on stage but then looked out at the audience and felt better when she saw her family and friends. When Elizabeth reminisced about that same graduation at a recent high school reunion, her memories centered on comedic moments, the teachers, and the physical campus—noting where they had their picture taken after graduation, and how there was a new building in the middle of the procession route. The reason the memory was being retrieved was different in these two cases, and so the details that sprang to mind also differed. These differences emphasize that memory retrieval isn’t just something that happens spontaneously—it can also be a process you consciously or unconsciously guide, with your goals and motivations shaping how the retrieval unfolds.
Use the Right Cue
The reminiscences in the example above highlight how moments that are seemingly forgotten can return to mind with the right retrieval cue. Perhaps you experienced the effectiveness of a retrieval cue when we asked you to search for a memory from high school; you may have remembered an event that you hadn’t reflected on for quite some time. General cues that anchor you to a past phase of your life (high school, for example) can be particularly useful for bringing to mind past events. These general cues give you just enough information to help you start rebuilding a memory.
Specific cues can be a double-edged sword. Sometimes they can help you to think of details you haven’t recalled in some time. At her high school reunion, one of Elizabeth’s classmates mentioned how they had to wait in the hot gym before the procession. As soon as it was mentioned, Elizabeth vividly remembered it: sitting on the bleachers, crowded together next to friends, their gowns sticking to them in the humidity, and their nervous chatter and disbelief that they were about to graduate. All it took was that simple cue reminding her of waiting in the gym for Elizabeth’s graduation memory to be reassembled from details she had not thought of in some time.
But a word of warning: You need to be wary about whether any newly-added content retrieved from a specific cue is accurate. As we’ll explore more in Chapter 12, we are all susceptible to incorporating misinformation—erroneous or misleading details—into our memories. We can all too easily incorporate someone else’s embellishments into our own memories or distort or merge details from events based on someone else’s suggestions. Was that memory of sitting on the gym bleachers really from graduation day? Or might it have been a memory from a final all-school assembly, when students were first handed their graduation gowns and—despite admonitions to wait until they were home—immediately ripped off the plastic wrapper and rushed to slip them on over their clothes right then and there?
Not only can specific cues from other people sometimes lead to memory distortions, they also can actually hinder your retrieval of other memory details. If you begin talking with a relative about the entrée at your cousin’s wedding, this cue may make it relatively easy for you to remember the things that happened while you were seated for the dinner (because brain activity is increased for this part of the memory), but it may make it harder to remember the things that happened earlier at the cocktail hour or later on the dance floor (because brain activity is inhibited for these related but different parts of the memory, as if they were competing with each other for attention). By being reminded of one part of a memory, it’s like you’ve shined a bright spotlight on a corner of a dimly lit room—although that corner is easy to see, the contrast makes the rest of the room harder to discern. Overall, you may end up recalling fewer details from the wedding than you otherwise would have because of the cue you were given.
Cues for the Future
Have you ever intended to stop at the grocery store on the way home, but then forgotten to do so as you drove past the turnoff? These prospective memory5 errors arise when we make a plan for a future time, and then fail to execute that plan when the moment arises. These errors can be frustrating and, in the case of failing to remember to take medications, even dangerous.
In the absence of using external reminders, the best way to minimize these errors is to create strong retrieval cues, and to rehearse them repeatedly. Imagine yourself turning left onto the road that takes you to the grocery store; feel your hand on the turn signal, think of the landmarks at that turn. Bring that image to mind when you first realize you need to stop at the grocery store. Bring it to mind again as you walk toward your car after work. By making those strong associations, you’re more likely to remember to execute your plan—to turn left and head toward the grocery store—when the moment arises.
Context Matters
How you retrieve a memory can be influenced not only by the cues given to you by others but also by the context in which you find yourself at that moment. At the broadest level, you can think of context as including both your inner state (the mood you’re in, the reason you’re retrieving a memory right now) and your external environment (your physical surroundings, the people you are with). Each of these can have a large impact on how you remember an event.
Examples abound in which your internal state influences the way you remember your past. If you are thinking about a romantic relationship because it has just ended, you are likely to bring to mind different details of past events than if you are focusing on the same relationship while happily celebrating an anniversary. If you are sad, you are more likely to remember sad events—past events that are consistent with that mood. If you are reminiscing with a friend in an effort to cheer them up, you are likely to focus on positive moments from your shared past. All these examples reflect ways in which your internal state will influence not only which memories you will recall but also how you reassemble those memories.
Your external environment also serves as a powerful retrieval cue. If you return to your childhood hometown, you are likely to think about events that you haven’t thought about in some time. Seeing the corner store may remind you of saving your allowance to buy comic books. Passing the library may remind you of the story time hours and puppet shows that you cherished as a child but haven’t thought about in years. The physical environment gives you a set of retrieval cues that can help bring past events to mind.
Retrieve the Way You Learned
These examples highlight a key principle of memory: Retrieval is most likely to succeed when you have access to the same information that was available to you when you first built the memory. In a famous experiment, participants studied material either on land or underwater—yes, you read that correctly—and were then tested in one of those two locations.6 Participants who studied and were tested in the same location did better than those who had a location change in between study and test. Having the same context (such as location in this example) helps you to find the cues you need to reassemble the memory in a way that more closely approximates the memory’s original construction. So does studying material in a similar way to how you will later be tested: Flashcards won’t be of much use for an all-essay exam, and a focus on translating English into French would not serve you well if your teacher expects you to translate French into English.
So Many Ways to Fail Retrieving That Memory
With the knowledge gained in this chapter, you are now ready to understand all the different reasons why you might have had trouble taking the exam in the example that we presented at the chapter’s outset. You might have experienced interference from similar items—perhaps even from items you generated yourself trying to answer the questions. As you struggled, you experienced stress, which only made it more difficult to retrieve the right answers. The exam might have presented a cue that helped you retrieve some of the items more easily while actually blocking you from retrieving others. If you usually studied in your room in the late afternoon with a coffee at hand and you’re taking the exam in the morning at a specialized testing center that doesn’t allow food and drink, then there is a mismatch for both your internal and external context. Lastly, you may have studied the content in one way, but the exam was asking you for it in a different way. You may have studied using flashcards, which may not have been helpful on short-answer questions that required integration of multiple concepts.
How to Minimize Retrieval Failures
Here are some key steps you can take when trying to remember information, such as someone’s name or the correct answer on an exam.
• Try to relax.
◦ This can be easier said than done, but relaxing can often be the most helpful antidote to retrieval failures because stress is so disruptive to retrieval. You may need to experiment with different ways to relax in these moments. Try taking a few slow, deep breaths as you feel your belly expand. Remind yourself that everyone has retrieval failures. Remember that the retrieval failure may just be temporary, and the information may return to mind shortly. If you find you can’t diminish your stress, look for ways to take control of some aspects of it.
◦ Still can’t remember someone’s name? Focus on being friendly instead, and the name may come once you’re relaxed.
◦ The first section of the exam looks impossible? Remember all the things you know and move on to a different section where you can feel more confident.
• Minimize interference and blocking.
◦ Resist the urge to generate possible names for your acquaintance.
◦ Don’t try all possible completions to a fill-in-the-blank exam question.
• Create general retrieval cues.
◦ Bring to mind a memory of your acquaintance (recall the last time you saw them or the person who introduced the two of you) or review other things you know about them, such as their work or family.
◦ Outline the broad concepts related to the exam topic. Recalling this general information can set up additional context for the information you are seeking that can aid in your ability to bring the desired details to mind—without causing interference or blocking by mistake.
• Try to return to the internal and external context of your learning, when possible.
◦ Although you cannot teleport your acquaintance to where you first learned their name, you can still mentally time-travel and think about when you last saw them, picturing the location, ambiance, and other people present. You can also work to match your mood (happy, sad, concerned, silly) and the thoughts you were having at the time. These are all retrieval cues that will help to bring their name to mind.
◦ The same advice holds true for classroom exams. If you’re having a retrieval failure, do what you can to get back into the context you were in while you studied. Picture yourself studying in your room: Imagine the layout of your textbook or your class notes. If you listened to music when you were studying, it may help to bring to mind one of the songs that played frequently during your study sessions.
◦ For classroom exams, it may also be tempting to modify your study context to match that in which you will need to retrieve the information, such as studying in the same classroom where you will be tested. But, as we briefly mentioned in Chapter 8, when preparing for an exam, you have the benefit (if you plan ahead and don’t cram) of studying in multiple different contexts. Study in the library, in your room, and outdoors if the weather is nice. Review material in the morning and just before bed. Quiz yourself while drinking coffee and eating an apple—and also with no food or drink in sight. By doing so, you are broadening the set of contexts in which the information will be accessible. After all, you don’t just want to remember your French vocabulary when you are taking your midterm—you want to remember it when you are in Paris.
• Try to acquire content in the same way that you will need to retrieve it.
◦ There is nothing wrong with reviewing the names of the people you are likely to see at a social event later that day. To make such reviewing most helpful, look at their faces from photos or social media and then try to generate their names. For example, prior to attending a reunion, review yearbook photos and try to recall each name as you look at their faces.
◦ For exams, don’t just study material the way it is presented in the textbook; think about how the teacher is most likely to test you and study the material that way. Not sure how you will be tested? Study the material multiple ways, so that however you will be tested, you will be ready.
10
Associate information
Across the room, a woman is smiling and waving at you. Her face is familiar. But how do you know her? She approaches and begins talking with you. It is only when she says how nice it was to meet you last weekend that you finally recall seeing her at your friend’s birthday party. Suddenly, other details return: You remember she has a niece around your age and that you discussed your mutual enjoyment of hiking.
Remembering the Details
Have you had an experience like this, when you recognize that you’ve seen someone or been somewhere before, but you cannot bring to mind any other details? Most people have these experiences from time to time. These moments typically arise because information, like a person’s face or a stretch of road, can elicit a sense of familiarity—the recognition that a person or place is familiar—even when the information is insufficient to prompt you to remember other details.1 Let’s explore why this happens.
Putting It Together
Remembering details—a process referred to as recollection—requires you to connect different pieces of information together. In previous chapters, we’ve analogized memory as the process by which structures are built and later reassembled. The prefrontal cortex—the part of the brain behind your forehead—helps you to select the details that ought to be included in the structure. The hippocampus—that seahorse-shaped structure deep within our brain—and the tissue surrounding it are essential for connecting that content, acting as the fastener that connects different building blocks together, ensuring that your memory structure is neither a series of disconnected rooms nor simply a bare scaffolding. These regions work together to build a memory structure that constitutes a prior event of your life (see Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1. The central executive in your prefrontal cortex (“CEO” pattern, near your eye) and the hippocampus in your temporal lobe facilitate the recollection of detailed sights, sounds, and thoughts that together constitute an event of your life. The amygdala helps process the emotions of your recollected memory.
Creating a memory structure with connected details can be a relatively easy task if you already have some previous knowledge that helps you to link the details together. Remembering that your nephew loves marshmallows in his hot chocolate may be fairly easy to learn if you have prior knowledge that many children enjoy this combination. Remembering that he has a stuffed dragon named Rocket may be a harder association to retain; to do so, you might need to think about the fact that dragons and rockets both fly, or create a mental image of your nephew and a dragon going up into space on a rocket. In other words, holding on to these more arbitrary associations in memory requires effort, and can be helped by many of the same strategies to create a durable memory that we described in Chapter 8.
