Determined, page 50
Footnote: S. Obhi and P. Hall, “Sense of Agency in Joint Action: Influence of Human and Computer Co-actors,” Experimental Brain Research 211 (2011): 663–70.
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A. Vonash et al., “Ordinary People Associate Addiction with Loss of Free Will,” Addictive Behavior Reports 5 (2017): 56; K. Vohs and R. Baumeiser, “Addiction and Free Will,” Addiction Research and Theory 17 (2009): 231; G. Heyman, “Do Addicts Have Free Will? An Empirical Approach to a Vexing Question,” Addictive Behavior Reports 5 (2018): 85; E. Racine, S. Sattler, and A. Escande, “Free Will and the Brain Disease Model of Addiction: The Not So Seductive Allure of Neuroscience and Its Modest Impact on the Attribution of Free Will to People with an Addiction,” Frontiers in Psychology 8 (2017): 1850.
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T. Nadelhoffer et al., “Does Encouraging a Belief in Determinism Increase Cheating? Reconsidering the Value of Believing in Free Will,” Cognition 203 (2020): 104342; A. Monroe, G. Brady, and B. Malle, “This Isn’t the Free Will Worth Looking For: General Free Will Beliefs Do Not Influence Moral Judgments, Agent-Specific Choice Ascriptions Do,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 8 (2017): 191; D. Wisniewski et al., “Relating Free Will Beliefs and Attitudes,” Royal Society Open Science 9 (2022): 202018.
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See: Nadelhoffer et al., “Does Encouraging a Belief in Determinism”; Monroe, Brady, and Malle, “This Isn’t the Free Will”; J. Harms et al., “Free to Help? An Experiment on Free Will Belief and Altruism,” PLoS One 12 (2017): e0173193; L. Crone and N. Levy, “Are Free Will Believers Nicer People? (Four Studies Suggest Not),” Social Psychological and Personality Science 10 (2019): 612; E. Caspar et al., “The Influence of (Dis)belief in Free Will on Immoral Behaviour,” Frontiers in Psychology 8 (2017): 20. Meta-analysis: O. Genschow, E. Cracco, and J. Schneider, “Manipulating Belief in Free Will and Its Downstream Consequences: A Meta-analysis,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 27 (2022): 52; B. Nosek, “Estimating the Reproducibility of Psychological Inference,” Science 349 (2015), DOI:10.1126/science.aac4716.
Footnote: O. Genschow et al., “Professional Judges’ Disbelief in Free Will Does Not Decrease Punishment,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 12 (2020): 357.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 11
A. Norenzayan, Big Gods: How Religion Transformed Cooperation and Conflict (Princeton University Press, 2013). For an interesting review of the book by complexity scientist Peter Turchin, see P. Turchin, “From Big Gods to the Big Brother,” Cliodynamica (blog), September 4, 2015, peterturchin.com/cliodynamica/from-big-gods-to-the-big-brother/.
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P. Edgell et al., “Atheists and Other Cultural Outsiders: Moral Boundaries and the Non-religious in the United States,” Social Forces 95 (2016): 607; E. Volokh, “Parent-Child Speech and Child Custody Speed Restrictions,” New York University Law Review 81 (2006): 631; A. Furnham, N. Meader, and A. McCelland, “Factors Affecting Nonmedical Participants’ Allocation of Scarce Medical Resources,” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 12 (1996): 735; J. Hunter, “The Williamsburg Charter Survey: Methodology and Findings,” Journal of Law and Religion 8 (1990): 257; M. Miller and B. Bornstein, “The Use of Religion in Death Penalty Sentencing Trials,” Law and Human Behavior 30 (2006): 675. For a demonstration of prescience, see J. Joyner, “Black President More Likely Than Mormon or Atheist,” Outside the Beltway, February 20, 2007, outsidethebeltway.com/archives/black_president_more_likely_than_mormon_or_atheist_/.
Footnote: S. Weber et al., “Psychological Distress among Religious Nonbelievers: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Religion and Health 51 (2012): 72.
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W. Gervais and M. Najle, “Nonreligious People in Religious Societies,” in The Oxford Handbook of Secularism, ed. P. Zuckerman and J. Shook (Oxford University Press, 2017); “USPS Discrimination against Atheism?,” https://atheist.shoes/pages/usps-study. Also, some chilling news: R. Evans, “Atheists Face Death in 13 Countries, Global Discrimination: Study,” Reuters, December 9, 2013, reuters.com/article/us-religion-atheists-idUSBRE9B900G20131210; International Humanist and Ethical Union, “You Can Be Put to Death for Atheism in 13 Countries around the World,” October 12, 2013, iheu.org/you-can-be-put-death-atheism-13-countries-around-world/; Human Rights Watch, “Saudi Arabia: New Terrorism Regulations Assault Rights,” March 20, 2014, hrw.org/news/2014/03/20/saudi-arabia-new-terrorism-regulations-assault-rights.
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C. Tamir et al., “The Global God Divide,” Pew Research Center, July 20, 2020; S. Weber et al., “Psychological Distress among Religious Nonbelievers,” Journal of Religion and Health 51 (2012): 72; M. Gervais, “Everything Is Permitted? People Intuitively Judge Immorality as Representative of Atheists,” PLoS One 9, no. 4 (2014): e92302; R. Ritter and J. Preston, “Representations of Religious Words: Insights for Religious Priming Research,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 52 (2013): 494; W. Gervais et al., “Global Evidence of Extreme Intuitive Moral Prejudice against Atheists,” Nature Human Behaviour 1 (2017): 0151.
Footnote: B. Rutjens and S. Heine, “The Immoral Landscape? Scientists Are Associated with Violations of Morality,” PLoS One 11 (2016): e0152798.
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See Weber et al., “Psychological Distress among Religious Nonbelievers.”
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Footnote: A. Norenzayan and W. Gervais, “The Origins of Religious Disbelief,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 17 (2013): 20; G. Pennycook et al., “On the Reception and Detection of Pseudo-profound Bullshit,” Judgment and Decision Making 10 (2015): 549; A. Shenhav, D. Rand, and J. Greene, “Divine Intuition: Cognitive Style Influences Belief in God,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 141 (2011): 423; W. Gervais and A. Norenzayan, “Analytic Thinking Promotes Religious Disbelief,” Science 336 (2012): 493; A. Jack et al., “Why Do You Believe in God? Relationships between Religious Belief, Analytic Thinking, Mentalizing and Moral Concern,” PLoS One 11 (2016): e0149989; Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, “2008 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic,” religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf.
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Self-reporting: B. Pelham and S. Crabtree, “Worldwide, Highly Religious More Likely to Help Others,” Gallup, October 8, 2008, news.gallup.com/poll/111013/worldwide-highly-religious-more-likely-help-others.aspx; M. Donahue and M. Nielsen, “Religion, Attitudes, and Social Behavior,” in Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, ed. R. Paloutzian and C. Park (Guilford, 2005); I. Pichon and V. Saroglou, “Religion and Helping: Impact of Target, Thinking Styles and Just-World Beliefs,” Archive for the Psychology of Religion 31 (2009): 215. Caring about giving a good impression: L. Galen, “Does Religious Belief Promote Prosociality? A Critical Examination,” Psychological Bulletin 138 (2012): 876; R. Putnam and R. Campbell, American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (Simon & Schuster, 2010).
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Religiosity and pro-sociality: V. Saroglou, “Religion’s Role in Prosocial Behavior: Myth or Reality?,” Psychology of Religion Newsletter 31 (2006): 1; V. Saroglou et al., “Prosocial Behavior and Religion: New Evidence Based on Projective Measures and Peer Ratings,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 44 (2005): 323; L. Anderson and J. Mellor, “Religion and Cooperation in a Public Goods Experiment,” Economics Letters 105 (2009): 58; C. Ellison, “Are Religious People Nice People? Evidence from the National Survey of Black Americans,” Social Forces 71 (1992): 411.
Religiosity and self-enhancement: K. Eriksson and A. Funcke, “Humble Self-Enhancement: Religiosity and the Better-Than-Average Affect,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 5 (2014): 76; C. Sedikides and J. Gebauer, “Religiosity as Self-Enhancement: A Meta-analysis of the Relation between Socially Desirable Responding and Religiosity,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 14 (2010): 17; P. Brenner, “Identity Importance and the Over-Reporting of Religious Service Attendance: Multiple Imputation of Religious Attendance Using the American Time Use Study and the General Social Survey,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 50 (2011): 103; P. Brenner, “Exceptional Behavior or Exceptional Identity? Over-Reporting of Church Attendance in the U.S.,” Public Opinion Quarterly 75 (2011): 19.
Religiosity and life satisfaction: E. Diener, L. Tay, and D. Myers, “The Religion Paradox: If Religion Makes People Happy, Why Are So Many Dropping Out?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101 (2011): 1278; C. Sabatier et al., “Religiosity, Family Orientation, and Life Satisfaction of Adolescents in Four Countries,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 42 (2011): 1375.
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Charitability: R. Gillum and K. Master, “Religiousness and Blood Donation: Findings from a National Survey,” Journal of Health Psychology 15 (2010): 163; P. Grossman and M. Parrett, “Religion and Prosocial Behaviour: A Field Test,” Applied Economics Letters 18 (2011): 523; McCullough and Worthington, “Religion and the Forgiving Personality”; G. Pruckner and R. Sausgruber, “Honesty on the Streets: A Field Experiment on Newspaper Purchasing,” Journal of the European Economic Association 11 (2008): 661; A. Tsang, A. Schulwitz, and R. Carlisle, “An Experimental Test of the Relationship between Religion and Gratitude,” Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 4 (2011): 40.
Religiosity and aggression: J. Blogowska, C. Lambert, and V. Saroglou, “Religious Prosociality and Aggression: It’s Real,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 52 (2013): 524. Being retributive: T. Greer et al., “We Are a Religious People; We Are a Vengeful People,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 44 (2005): 45; M. Leach, M. Berman, and L. Eubanks, “Religious Activities, Religious Orientation, and Aggressive Behavior,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 47 (2008): 311.
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L. Galen and J. Kloet, “Personality and Social Integration Factors Distinguishing Nonreligious from Religious Groups: The Importance of Controlling for Attendance and Demographics,” Archive for the Psychology of Religion 33 (2011): 205; L. Galen, M. Sharp, and A. McNulty, “The Role of Nonreligious Group Factors versus Religious Belief in the Prediction of Prosociality,” Social Indicators Research 122 (2015): 411; R. Stark, “Physiology and Faith: Addressing the ‘Universal’ Gender Difference in Religious Commitment,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41 (2002): 495; M. Argyle, Psychology and Religion: An Introduction (Routledge, 2000); G. Lenski, “Social Correlates of Religious Interest,” American Sociological Review 18 (1953): 533; A. Miller and J. Hoffmann, “Risk and Religion: An Explanation of Gender Differences in Religiosity,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34 (1995): 63.
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Putnam and Campbell, American Grace; T. Smith, M. McCullough, and J. Poll, “Religiousness and Depression: Evidence for a Main Effect and the Moderating Influence of Stressful Life Events,” Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003): 614; L. Galen and J. Kloet, “Mental Well-Being in the Religious and the Non-religious: Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship,” Mental Health, Religion & Culture 14 (2011): 673; M. McCullough and T. Smith, “Religion and Depression: Evidence for a Main Effect and the Moderating Influence of Stress Life Events,” Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003): 614; L. Manning, “Gender and Religious Differences Associated with Volunteering in Later Life,” Journal of Women and Aging 22 (2010): 125.
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Pichon and Saroglou, “Religion and Helping”; N. Mazar, O. Ami, and D. Ariely, “The Dishonesty of Honest People: A Theory of Self-Concept Maintenance,” Journal of Marketing Research 45 (2008): 633; M. Lang et al., “Moralizing Gods, Impartiality and Religious Parochialism across 15 Societies,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (2019): 20190202; A. Shariff et al., “Religious Priming: A Meta-analysis with a Focus on Prosociality,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 20 (2016): 27.
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Pichon and Saroglou, “Religion and Helping”; A. Shariff and A. Norenzayan, “God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game,” Psychological Science 18 (2007): 803; K. Laurin, A. Kay, and G. Fitzsimons, “Divergent Effects of Activating Thoughts of God on Self-Regulation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 4; K. Rounding et al., “Religion Replenishes Self-Control,” Psychological Science 23 (2012): 635; J. Saleam and A. Moustafa, “The Influence of Divine Rewards and Punishments on Religious Prosociality,” Frontiers in Psychology 7 (2016): 1149.
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Shariff and Norenzayan, “God Is Watching You”; B. Randolph-Seng and M. Nielsen, “Honesty: One Effect of Primed Religious Representations,” International Journal of Psychology and Religion 17 (2007): 303.
Footnote: M. Quirin, J. Klackl, and E. Jonas, “Existential Neuroscience: A Review and Brain Model of Coping with Death Awareness,” in Handbook of Terror Management Theory, ed. C. Routledge and M. Vess (Elsevier, 2019).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 25
J. Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (Pantheon, 2012); J. Weedon and R. Kurzban, “What Predicts Religiosity? A Multinational Analysis of Reproductive and Cooperative Morals,” Evolution and Human Behavior 34 (2012): 440; P. Zuckerman, Society without God (New York University Press, 2008).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 26
M. Regnerus, C. Smith, and D. Sikkink, “Who Gives to the Poor? The Influence of Religious Tradition and Political Location on Personal Generosity of Americans toward the Poor,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37 (1998): 481; J. Jost and M. Krochik, “Ideological Differences in Epistemic Motivation: Implications for Attitude Structure, Depth of Information Processing, Susceptibility to Persuasion, and Stereotyping,” Advances in Motivation Science 1 (2014): 181; F. Grupp and W. Newman, “Political Ideology and Religious Preference: The John Birch Society and Americans for Democratic Action,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 12 (1974): 401.
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Center for Global Development, “Commitment to Development Index 2021,” cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/cdi/; Center for Global Development, “Ranking the Rich,” Foreign Policy 142 (2004): 46; Center for Global Development, “Ranking the Rich,” Foreign Policy 150 (2005): 76; Zuckerman, Society without God; P. Norris and R. Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (Cambridge University Press, 2004); S. Bruce, Politics and Religion (Polity, 2003).
Footnote: Center for Global Development, “Ranking the Rich,” Foreign Policy 150 (2005): 76.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 28
P. Zuckerman, “Atheism, Secularity, and Well-Being: How the Findings of Social Science Counter Negative Stereotypes and Assumptions,” Sociology Compass 3 (2009): 949; B. Beit-Hallahmi, “Atheists: A Psychological Profile,” in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. M. Martin, Cambridge Companions to Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 2007); S. Crabtree and B. Pelham, “More Religious Countries, More Perceived Ethnic Intolerance,” Gallup, April 7, 2009, gallup.com/poll/117337/Religious-CountriesPerceived-Ethnic-Intolerance.aspx; J. Lyne, “Who’s No. 1? Finland, Japan and Korea, Says OECD Education Study,” Site Selection, December 10, 2001, siteselection.com/ssinsider/snapshot/sf011210.htm; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “UNODC Statistics Online.”
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Inglehart and Norris, Sacred and Secular.
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H. Tan and C. Vogel, “Religion and Trust: An Experimental Study,” Journal of Economic Psychology 29 (2008): 332; J. Preston and R. Ritter, “Different Effects of Religion and God on Prosociality with the Ingroup and Outgroup,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39 (2013): 1471; A. Ahmed, “Are Religious People More Prosocial? A Quasi-experimental Study with Madrasah Pupils in a Rural Community in India,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 48 (2009): 368; A. Ben-Ner et al., “Identity and In-group/Out-group Differentiation in Work and Giving Behaviors: Experimental Evidence,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 72 (2009): 153; C. Fershtman, U. Gneezy, and F. Verboven, “Discrimination and Nepotism: The Efficiency of the Anonymity Rule,” Journal of Legal Studies 34 (2005): 371; R. Reich, Just Giving: Why Philanthropy Is Failing Democracy and How It Can Do Better (Princeton University Press, 2018).
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 31
Lang et al., “Moralizing Gods, Impartiality and Religious Parochialism.”
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J. Blogowska and V. Saroglou, “Religious Fundamentalism and Limited Prosociality as a Function of the Target,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 50 (2011): 44; M. Johnson et al., “A Mediational Analysis of the Role of Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Religious Fundamentalism in the Religiosity-Prejudice Link,” Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011): 851.
BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 33
D. Gay and C. Ellison, “Religious Subcultures and Political Tolerance: Do Denominations Still Matter?,” Review of Religious Research 34 (1993): 311; T. Vilaythong, N. Lindner, and B. Nosek, “ ‘Do unto Others’: Effects of Priming the Golden Rule on Buddhists’ and Christians’ Attitudes toward Gay People,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 49 (2010): 494; J. LaBouff et al., “Differences in Attitudes towards Outgroups in a Religious or Non-religious Context in a Multi-national Sample: A Situational Context Priming Study,” International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 22 (2012): 1; M. Johnson, W. Rowatt, and J. LaBouff, “Priming Christian Religious Concepts Increases Racial Prejudice,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 1 (2010): 119; Pichon and Saroglou, “Religion and Helping”; R. McKay et al., “Wrath of God: Religious Primes and Punishment,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278 (2011): 1858; G. Tamarin, “The Influence of Ethnic and Religious Prejudice on Moral Judgment,” New Outlook 9 (1996): 49; J. Ginges, I. Hansen, and A. Norenzayan, “Religion and Support for Suicide Attacks,” Psychological Science 20 (2009): 224. See: Leach, Berman, and Eubanks, “Religious Activities, Religious Orientation”; H. Ledford, “Scriptural Violence Can Foster Aggression,” Nature 446 (2007): 114; B. Bushman et al., “When God Sanctions Killing: Effect of Scriptural Violence on Aggression,” Psychological Science 18 (2007): 204.
