Determined, page 46
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Y. Moriguchi and I. Shinohara, “Socioeconomic Disparity in Prefrontal Development during Early Childhood,” Science Reports 9 (2019): 2585; M. Varnum and S. Kitayama, “The Neuroscience of Social Class,” Current Opinion in Psychology 18 (2017): 147; K. Muscatell et al., “Social Status Modulates Neural Activity in the Mentalizing Network,” Neuroimage 60 (2012): 1771; K. Sarsour et al., “Family Socioeconomic Status and Child Executive Functions: The Roles of Language, Home Environment, and Single Parenthood,” Journal of International Neuropsychology 17 (2011): 120; M. Monninger, E. Kraaijenvanger, and T. Pollok, “The Long-Term Impact of Early Life Stress on Orbitofrontal Cortical Thickness,” Cerebral Cortex 30 (2020): 1307; N. Hair et al., “Association of Child Poverty, Brain Development, and Academic Achievement,” JAMA Pediatrics 169 (2015): 822.
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L. Machlin, K. McLaughlin, and M. Sheridan, “Brain Structure Mediates the Association between Socioeconomic Status and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,” Developmental Science 23 (2020): e12844; K. Sarsour et al., “Family Socioeconomic Status and Child Executive Functions: The Roles of Language, Home Environment, and Single Parenthood,” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 17 (2011): 120; M. Kim et al., “A Link between Childhood Adversity and Trait Anger Reflects Relative Activity of the Amygdala and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex,” Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience Neuroimaging 3 (2019): 644; B. Hart and T. Risley, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children (Brooke, 1995); E. Hoff, “How Social Contexts Support and Shape Language Development,” Developmental Review 26 (2006): 55.
Footnote: J. Reed, E. D’Ambrosio, and S. Marenco, “Interaction of Childhood Urbanicity and Variation in Dopamine Genes Alters Adult Prefrontal Function as Measured by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI),” PLoS One 13, no. 4 (2018): e0195189; B. Besteher et al., “Associations between Urban Upbringing and Cortical Thickness and Gyrification,” Journal of Psychiatry Research 95 (2017): 114; J. Xu et al., “Global Urbanicity Is Associated with Brain and Behavior in Young People,” Nature Human Behaviour 6 (2022): 279; V. Steinheuser et al., “Impact of Urban Upbringing on the (Re)activity of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis,” Psychosomatic Medicine 76 (2014): 678; F. Lederbogen, P. Kirsch, and L. Haddad, “City Living and Urban Upbringing Affect Neural Social Stress Processing in Humans,” Nature 474 (2011): 498.
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C. Franz et al., “Adult Cognitive Ability and Socioeconomic Status as Mediators of the Effects of Childhood Disadvantage on Salivary Cortisol in Aging Adults,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 38 (2013): 2127; D. Barch et al., “Early Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Cognitive and Adaptive Outcomes at the Transition to Adulthood: The Mediating Role of Gray Matter Development across 5 Scan Waves,” Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging 7 (2021): 34; M. Farah, “Socioeconomic Status and the Brain: Prospects for Neuroscience-Informed Policy,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 19 (2018): 428.
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J. Herzog and C. Schmahl, “Adverse Childhood Experiences and the Consequences on Neurobiological, Psychosocial, and Somatic Conditions across the Lifespan,” Frontiers of Psychiatry 9 (2018): 420.
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A variety of adverse neurobiological consequences of prenatal stress: Y. Lu, K. Kapse, and N. Andersen, “Association between Socioeconomic Status and In Utero Fetal Brain Development,” JAMA Network Open 4 (2021): e213526.
Effects on risk of psychiatric disorders: A. Converse et al., “Prenatal Stress Induces Increased Striatal Dopamine Transporter Binding in Adult Nonhuman Primates,” Biological Psychiatry 74 (2013): 502; C. Davies et al., “Prenatal and Perinatal Risk and Protective Factors for Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” Lancet Psychiatry 7 (2010): 399; J. Markham and J. Koenig, “Prenatal Stress: Role in Psychotic and Depressive Diseases,” Psychopharmacology 214 (2011): 89; B. Van den Bergh et al., “Prenatal Developmental Origins of Behavior and Mental Health: The Influence of Maternal Stress in Pregnancy,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 117 (2020): 26.
How does maternal stress during pregnancy have these adverse effects on the fetal brain and the brain of that fetus as an adult? Elevated glucocorticoid levels getting from maternal to fetal circulation, elevated levels of damaging inflammatory messengers, decreased blood flow to the fetus. See: A. Kinnunen, J. Koenig, and G. Bilbe, “Repeated Variable Prenatal Stress Alters Pre- and Postsynaptic Gene Expression in the Rat Frontal Pole,” Journal of Neurochemistry 86 (2003): 736; B. Van den Bergh, R. Dahnke, and M. Mennes, “Prenatal Stress and the Developing Brain: Risks for Neurodevelopmental Disorders,” Development and Psychopathology 30 (2018): 743.
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G. Winterer and D. Goldman, “Genetics of Human Prefrontal Function,” Brain Research Reviews 43 (2003): 134.
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A. Heinz et al., “Amygdala-Prefrontal Coupling Depends on a Genetic Variation of the Serotonin Transporter,” Nature Neuroscience 8 (2005): 20; L. Passamonti et al., “Monoamine Oxidase-a Genetic Variations Influence Brain Activity Associated with Inhibitory Control: New Insight into the Neural Correlates of Impulsivity,” Biological Psychiatry 59 (2006): 334; M. Nomura and Y. Nomura, “Psychological, Neuroimaging, and Biochemical Studies on Functional Association between Impulsive Behavior and the 5-HT2A Receptor Gene Polymorphism in Humans,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1086 (2006): 134. The more gene variants of the “risk-taking” cluster, the smaller the dlPFC: G. Avdogan et al., “Genetic Underpinnings of Risky Behavior Relate to Altered Neuroanatomy,” Nature Human Behaviour 5 (2021): 787.
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K. Bruce et al., “Association of the Promoter Polymorphism -1438G/A of the 5-HT2A Receptor Gene with Behavioral Impulsiveness and Serotonin Function in Women with Bulimia Nervosa,” American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 137B (2005): 40.
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K. Honnegger and B. de Bivot, “Stoachasticity, Individuality and Behavior,” Current Biology 28 (2018): R8; J. Ayroles et al., “Behavioral Idiosyncrasy Reveals Genetic Control of Phenotypic Variability,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112 (20150): 6706. Also see G. Linneweber et al., “A Neurodevelopmental Origin of Behavioral Individual in the Drosophila Visual System,” Science 367 (2020): 1112.
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J. Chiao et al., “Neural Basis of Individualistic and Collectivistic Views of Self,” Human Brain Mapping 30 (2009): 2813.
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S. Han and Y. Ma, “Cultural Differences in Human Brain Activity: A Quantitative Meta-analysis,” Neuroimage 99 (2014): 293; Y. Ma et al., “Sociocultural Patterning of Neural Activity during Self-Reflection,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 9 (2014): 73; Lu, Kapse, and Andersen, “Association between Socioeconomic Status.”
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P. Chen et al., “Medial Prefrontal Cortex Differentiates Self from Mother in Chinese: Evidence from Self-Motivated Immigrants,” Culture and Brain 1 (2013): 3.
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General review: J. Sasaki and H. Kim, “Nature, Nurture, and Their Interplay: A Review of Cultural Neuroscience,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 48 (2016): 4.
Interactions between culture and genes: M. Palmatier, A. Kang, and K. Kidd, “Global Variation in the Frequencies of Functionally Different Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Alleles,” Biological Psychiatry 46 (1999): 557; Y. Chiao and K. Blizinsky, “Culture-Gene Coevolution of Individualism-Collectivism and the Serotonin Transporter Gene,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277 (2010): 22; K. Ishii et al., “Culture Modulates Sensitivity to the Disappearance of Facial Expression Associated with Serotonin Transporter Polymorphism (5-HTTLPR),” Culture and Brain 2 (2014): 72; J. LeClair et al., “Gene-Culture Interaction: Influence of Culture and Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) Polymorphism on Loneliness,” Culture and Brain 4 (2016): 21; S. Luo et al., “Interaction between Oxytocin Receptor Polymorphism and Interdependent Culture Values on Human Empathy,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10 (2015): 1273.
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K. Norton and M. Lilieholm, “The Rostrolateral Prefrontal Cortex Mediates a Preference for High-Agency Environments,” Journal of Neuroscience 40 (2020): 4401. For a similar theme, also see J. Parvizi et al., “The Will to Persevere Induced by Electrical Stimulation of the Human Cingulate Gyrus,” Neuron 80 (2013): 1359.
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5. A Primer on Chaos
These concepts are discussed in A. Maar, “Kinds of Determinism in Science,” Principia 23 (2019): 503.
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E. Lorenz, “Deterministic Non-periodic Flow,” Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 20 (1963): 130.
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Laughable folklore: R. Bishop, “What Could Be Worse Than the Butterfly Effect?,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 38 (2008): 519. Strange attractors as repelling as well as attracting: J. Hobbs, “Chaos and Indeterminism,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 21 (1991): 141.
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“A Sound of Thunder” can be found in R. Bradbury, The Golden Apples of the Sun (Doubleday, 1953).
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Footnote: M. Mitchell, Complexity: A Guided Tour (Oxford University Press, 2009).
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For a particularly clear discussion of these ideas, see: M. Bedau, “Weak Emergence,” Philosophical Perspectives 11 (1997): 375.
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C. Gu et al., “Three-Dimensional Cellular Automaton Simulation of Coupled Hydrogen Porosity and Microstructure during Solidification of Ternary Aluminum Alloys,” Scientific Reports 9 (2019): 13099. YouTube has a number of videos showing 3D cellular automata, which are spectacular. For example: Softology, “3D Cellular Automata,” December 5, 2017, YouTube video, 2:30, youtube.com/watch?v=dQJ5aEsP6Fs; Softology, “3D Accretor Cellular Automata,” January 26, 2018, YouTube video, 4:45, youtube.com/watch?v=_W-n510Pca0.
Footnote (p. 142): S. Wolfram, A New Kind of Science (Wolfram Media, 2002).
Okay, I have a horrible confession to make. On p. 138, there is the picture of the wildly chaotic, thoroughly unpredictable complex cellular automata that can be generated with rule 22. Here’s the confession: this isn’t actually made with rule 22; instead, it’s made with the closely related rule 90. The visual showing a crazily complex wonderful version of rule 22 was of terrible quality, I couldn’t find anything better, made no headway in getting the Wolfram Empire to send a higher-resolution of the visual . . . and in a moment in the dark of night that tests one’s soul, with the clock ticking, I decided to stick in a cool visual generated with rule 90 instead. It makes the same point—knowing the starting state and reproduction rule (90, in this case) gives you zero predictability as to what a complex version is going to look like. In fact, it makes a point about the chaoticism of cellular automata even more powerful—no one (hopefully? please) looking at it could tell that this complex pattern arose from application of rule 22 or rule 90. Now that’s off my chest.
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6. Is Your Free Will Chaotic?
Ideas discussed in: D. Porush, “Making Chaos: Two Views of a New Science,” New England Review and Bread Loaf Quarterly 12 (1990): 439.
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A sampling: M. Cutright, Chaos Theory and Higher Education: Leadership, Planning, and Policy (Peter Lang, 2001); S. Sule and S. Nilhan, Chaos, Complexity and Leadership 2018: Explorations of Chaotic and Complexity Theory (Springer, 2020); E. Peters, Fractal Market Analysis: Applying Chaos Theory to Investment and Economics (Wiley, 1994); R. Pryor, The Chaos Theory of Careers (Routledge, 2011); K. Yas et al., “From Natural to Artificial Selection: A Chaotic Reading of Shelagh Stephenson’s An Experiment with an Air Pump (1998),” International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature 7 (2018): 23; A. McLachlan, “Same but Different: Chaos and TV Drama Narratives” (doctoral thesis, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand, 2019), hdl.handle.net. Theological musings: D. Gray, Toward a Theology of Chaos: The New Scientific Paradigm and Some Implications for Ministry (Citeseer, 1997); D. Steenburg, “Chaos at the Marriage of Heaven and Hell,” Harvard Theological Review 84 (1991): 447; J. Eigenauer, “The Humanities and Chaos Theory: A Response to Steenburg’s ‘Chaos at the Marriage of Heaven and Hell,’ ” Harvard Theological Review 86 (1993): 455; D. Steenburg, “A Response to John D. Eigenauer,” Harvard Theological Review 86 (1993): 471.
Footnote: J. Bassingthwaight, L. Liebovitch, and B. West, Fractal Physiology (American Physiological Society, 1994); N. Schweighofer et al., “Chaos May Enhance Information Transmission in the Inferior Olive,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (2004): 4655.
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Simpsons Wiki, s.v. “Chaos Theory in Baseball Analysis,” simpsons.fandom.com/wiki/Chaos_Theory_in_Baseball_Analysis; M. Farmer, Chaos Theory, Nerds of Paradise book 2 (Amazon.com Services, 2017).
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G. Eilenberger, “Freedom, Science, and Aesthetics,” in The Beauty of Fractals, ed. H. Peitgen and P. Richter (Springer, 1986), p. 179.
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K. Clancy, “Your Brain Is on the Brink of Chaos,” Nautilus, Fall 2014, 144.
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Farmer quoted in James Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science (Viking, 1987), p. 251.
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Steenburg, “Chaos at the Marriage.”
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Eilenberger, “Freedom, Science, and Aesthetics,” p. 176.
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A. Maar, “Kinds of Determinism in Science,” Principia 23 (2019): 503. For a comparison of encompassing versus individual determinism, see: J. Doomen, “Cornering ‘Free Will,’ ” Journal of Mind and Behavior 32 (2011): 165; H. Atmanspacher, “Determinism Is Ontic, Determinability Is Epistemic,” in Between Chance and Choice: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Determinism, ed. R. Bishop and H. Atmanspacher (Imprint Academic, 2002). To get further into the weeds with the likes of “partial determinism” and “adequate determinism,” see: J. Earman, A Primer on Determinism (Reidel, 1986); S. Kellert, In the Wake of Chaos: Unpredictable Order in Dynamic Systems (University of Chicago Press, 1993).
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S. Caprara and A. Vulpiani, “Chaos and Stochastic Models in Physics: Ontic and Epistemic Aspects,” in Models and Inferences in Science. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics, vol. 25, ed. E. Ippoliti, F. Sterpetti, and T. Nickles (Springer, 2016), p. 133; G. Hunt, “Determinism, Predictability and Chaos,” Analysis 47 (1987): 129; M. Stone, “Chaos, Prediction and Laplacean Determinism,” American Philosophical Quarterly 26 (1989): 123; V. Batitsky and Z. Domotor, “When Good Theories Make Bad Predictions,” Synthese 157 (2007): 79.
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W. Seeley, “Behavioral Variant Frontotemporal Dementia,” Continuum 25 (2019): 76; R. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (Norton, 1986), p. 9.
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W. Farnsworth and M. Grady, Torts: Cases and Questions, 3rd ed. (Wolters Kluwer, 2019).
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R. Sapolsky, “Measures of Life,” The Sciences, March/April 1994, p. 10.
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M. Shandlen, “Comment on Adina Roskies,” in Moral Psychology, vol. 4, Free Will and Moral Responsibility, ed. W. Sinnott-Armstrong (MIT Press, 2014), p. 139.
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7. A Primer on Emergent Complexity
Footnote: For more on this concept, see R. Carneiro, “The Transition from Quantity to Quality: A Neglected Causal Mechanism in Accounting for Social Evolution,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97 (2000): 12926.
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For some impressive examples, see: W. Tschinkel, “The Architecture of Subterranean Ant Nests: Beauty and Mystery Underfoot,” Journal of Bioeconomics 17 (2015): 271; M. Bollazzi and F. Roces, “The Thermoregulatory Function of Thatched Nests in the South American Grass-Cutting Ant, Acromyrmex heyeri,” Journal of Insect Science 10 (2010): 137; I. Guimarães et al., “The Complex Nest Architecture of the Ponerinae Ant Odontomachus chelifer,” PLoS One 13 (2018): e0189896; N. Mlot, C. Tovey, and D. Hu, “Diffusive Dynamics of Large Ant Rafts,” Communicative and Integrative Biology 5 (2012): 590. For a theoretical approach to ant emergence, see D. Gordon, “Control without Hierarchy,” Nature 446 (2007): 143. For a demonstration of how it’s not all fun and games being an ant, see: N. Stroeymeyt et al., “Social Network Plasticity Decreases Disease Transmission in a Eusocial Insect,” Science 363 (2018): 941 (the authors show that ant networks shift so that sick ants [experimentally infected with a fungus] are ostracized to limit infectivity).
