King Arthur, page 16
The Black Book of Carmarthen contain a ‘dialogue between Myrddin and Taliesin’ and three other poems. The Red Book of Hengist contains ‘the conversation between Myrddin and his sister Gwenddydd’ and two other poems.
Geoffrey of Monmouth combines Myrddin Wylit and Emrys Ambrosius from Nennius to create Merlin and place him before and during Arthur’s reign.
Later French romances and Welsh literary sources come after this.
Uther Pendragon or Uthyr Bendragon.
1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Could be an epithet: ‘head dragon/chief leader’.
Geoffrey of Monmouth records first detailed biography in 1136.
He is also mentioned in various Welsh poems and Triads some of which name him as Arthur’s father.
In Robert de Boron’s (twelfth-century) Merlin, Uther kills Hengist and Merlin creates the Round Table for him.
In Prose Lancelot (thirteenth century), Uther takes an army to Brittany to fight near his home town of Bourges, similar to the historical character Riothamus in 471.
Igraine or Eigyr
1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth
Welsh sources and genealogies name her as daughter of Amlawdd Wledig. Her sister Gwyar is the mother of Gwalchmai (Gawain).
Geoffrey states she is the wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. Later romances derive from Geoffrey and also place her at Tintagel.
Guinevere or Gwenhwyfar
1136
The earliest mention is in Culhwch and Olwen, eleventh century.
Geoffrey of Monmouth 1136 named her as Guanhumara.
Welsh sources name her Gwenhwyfar (Culhwch and Olwen; Life of St Gildas).
Abducted by Melwas (Life of St Gildas) or Meleagant (Chretien de Troyes).
Affair with Mordred (Geoffrey) or Lancelot (Chretien de Troyes).
Welsh Triads name three Gwenhwyfars as wives of Arthur. A sister, Gwenhwyfach, is mentioned in Culhwch and Olwen. Additionally in two Triads a feud between the sisters is said to have caused the Battle of Camlan.
Kingship
The first description is ‘dux bellorum’, or leader of battles in the ninth-century Historia Brittonum. This doesn’t preclude a royal status, but is probably a biblical analogy as it is similar to the description of Joshua. The suggestion it is a late reflection of a Roman military title has also been made. The earliest Welsh sources that describe him as a king come in the eleventh century. One early poem, Geraint son of Erbin, possibly refers to him as ameraudur, which could be translated as emperor or general/commander. Geoffrey of Monmouth describes a vast Empire from Norway to the Alps.
Sword in the stone
Twelfth century
First described by Robert de Boron in the poem Merlin. The sword was in an anvil on a stone in a churchyard in London. Later renditions changed it to in the stone itself.
A number of suggestions have been put forward:
A medieval sword of Saint Galgano (1148–81) is embedded in rock in the Abbey of San Galgano in Italy and may have influenced Robert who was writing soon after.
The ‘London Stone’ is a block of limestone that was once a medieval landmark. Striking a stone with a sword was a popular medieval concept to signal authority. In John Cade’s rebellion in 1450 he is said to have struck the stone with his sword and declared himself Lord Mayor.
The use of a stone mould to cast metal would result in the sword being drawn from the stone once cooled. Possible confusion between Latin word for stone, saxum similar to Saxonum for Saxon.
Excalibur
Twelfth century
Derives from the Welsh Caledfwlch (e.g Culhwch and Olwen) meaning hard cleft, possibly borrowed from Irish mythology and the sword Caladblog. Geoffrey of Monmouth Latinised the name to Caliburnus. In French sources this became Caliburc, Escaliborc, Escalibor, Excalibor and finally Excalibur.
Early legends have the sword being drawn from an anvil on a stone, then a stone itself. Later the Post Vulgate Cycle, 1230–40, has Arthur receive Excalibur from the Lady in the Lake.
Other weapons
Twelfth century
In the Welsh Triads: Rhongomiant his spear, Carnwennan his dagger and Caledfwich his sword.
Culhwch and Olwen refers to ‘Carnwennan’ (white hilt). Geoffrey of Monmouth refers to his lance Ron.
In fifteenth-century Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain there is another ‘White-Hilt’, Drynwyn, belonging to Rhydderch Hael (580–614). It can only be drawn by a worthy man and the blade blazes with fire. Irish mythology also has a ‘sword of light’ (‘Claiomh Solais’).
Lady in the lake
Twelfth century
Chretien de Troyes first mentions Lancelot’s upbringing by a fairy in a lake. Called Nimue or Vivienne in later romances.
In some stories she captures Merlin in a tree or beneath a stone. Morgan is also later said to be either a sister or the Lady herself. Descriptions of her as a fairy queen are also similar to Geoffrey’s depiction of Morgan on the Isle of Avalon to whom Arthur is taken to be healed after Camlan.
Lancelot
Twelfth century
Lancelot du Lac (of the lake) or Launcelot. First appeared in Chretien de Troyes in the twelfth century, the first to feature the love affair with Guinevere. Later works introduce his relationship with the Lady in the Lake and also the Grail quest.
Morgan le Fay
1136
First mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth but has no relation to Arthur. In his later Vitae Merlini she is the leader of nine magical sisters of Avalon or The Fortunate Isle. This is similar to many other legends and myths in Britain, Ireland and Gaul, hence Le Fay or Faerie. Chretien de Troyes is the first to name her as a half-sister to Arthur and also names her as a healer.
In later stories she developed into a sorceress or witchlike character and even a seducer of Arthur and mother to Mordred (early tales name her sister Morgause in this role).
Modred
Medrawt
Medraut
Tenth century
First mentioned in Annales Cambriae written in the tenth century. The entry for 537 refers to ‘The strife of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medrawt fell.’ There is no mention of them being enemies. In fact some Welsh texts describe him in positive terms. His notorious reputation begins with Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Early Welsh texts record him as nephew of Arthur and son of either Morgause or Arthur’s sister Anna, married to King Lot of Lothian. The references to him being Arthur’s son from an incestuous liaison came much later.
Arthur’s sons
from 830
Amr in Historia Brittonum c.830 (Amhar in Geraint and Enid).
Llacheu is named in the Triads and Pa Gur.
Loholt mentioned in the French romance Perlesvaus and Vulgate Cycle thirteenth century.
Duran said to have died at Camlan in a fifteenth-century Welsh text.
Cydfan
Gwydre
Modred is first described as a nephew but later texts change the relationship.
Camelot
Twelfth century
The earliest written source, Culhwch and Olwen from the eleventh century places Arthur’s court at Celliwig (forest grove) in Cornwall.
In the Welsh Triads (Peniarth MS 54, fifteenth century) Arthur’s courts are at Pen Rhionydd in the north, Celliwig in Cornwall and Mynyw in Wales (St David’s). The first two are unidentified although the former is likely to be within the later kingdom of Rheged.
Geoffrey of Monmouth bases Arthur at Caerleon in South Wales.
Camelot is mentioned for the first time, in passing, by Chretien de Troyes and he distinguishes it from Arthur’s chief court at Caerleon.
In thirteenth-century Lancelot-Grail and Post-Vulgate Cycle, Camelot begins to supersede Caerleon but it is not until Malory in the fifteenth century that the Camelot of modern times emerges.
Other sites are also mentioned as courts of Arthur:
Quimper in Brittany in Lancelot romance.
Carduel, Wales in Chretien’s The Knight and the Lion (unidentified).
Cardigan in Chretien’s Eric and Enide.
Stirling in Beroul’s twelfth-century Tristan.
Avalon
1136
First mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth as the place where Arthur is taken after Camlan to be healed by Morgan Le Fay. Insula Avallonis means Isle of fruit (or apple) trees. In later Welsh texts it is Ynys Afallon or Afallach. May be linked to Irish legends concerning Emain Abhlach, a mythical island paradise also identified with Isle of Man or Arran. Geoffrey’s Vita Merlini indicates a sea voyage is necessary to get there and it is named the Isle of Apples.
Later French romances identified it with Glastonbury. This was aided in 1190 by the ‘discovery’ of a burial on the site of the abbey with a cross inscribed with a reference to Arthur and Avalon. This discovery is believed to be a fake by the monks.
There is an Avallon in Burgundy close to where Riothamus campaigned. Other suggested possible cities include Aballava or Avallana, a Roman fort at the western end of Hadrian’s Wall and Ile d’Aval of the coast of Brittany.
As early as AD 45 Mela gives account of an island off Brittany, home to nine holy priestesses. Similar to nine maidens in ‘The spoils of Annwfn’ and later stories connected to Morgan Le Fay.
The Grail
1190
First appears in Chretien’s 1190 Perceval.
The German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach, based his work on Chretien, but perceived the Grail as a stone later linked to The Philosopher’s Stone.
Around 1200, Robert de Boron linked the Grail to the last supper and the collection of Christ’s blood on the cross. Joseph of Arimathea then transports the Grail to England and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers.
The Vulgate Cycle expands on this and includes other characters such as Lancelot and Galahad.
The Grail has also been linked to earlier Welsh and Irish folk tales concerning cauldrons and vessels similar to Arthur and the cauldron in Spoils of Annwfn.
The Fisher King
1190
First introduced by Chretien de Troyes. The Fisher King is the last of a long line of Grail Keepers, usually wounded in the groin or leg. All he is able to do is fish from a small boat near his castle in later legends called Corbenic (blessed horn/body).
Initially linked to Percival later stories include Galahad and Bors.
Could be derived from the Welsh legend ‘Bran the Blessed’ in the Mabinogion which is independent of Arthurian and Grail literature.
Bedivere
Bedwyr first mentioned in tenth century Pa Gur. Also in Culhwch and Olwen, Stanzas of the Graves, Welsh Triads and Life of St Cadoc. Becomes Bedivere after Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Gawain
First appears in Culhwch and Olwen eleventh century. Then in French romances from Chretien onwards.
Kay or Cai
First mentioned in tenth-century Pa Gur. Also in Life of St Cadoc, Culhwch and Olwen and later French sources. Maybe derivative of Latin Caius.
Owain or Ywain
Possibly based on Owain, son of Urien, King of Rheged at the end of the sixth century. Both Owain and Urien have multiple references in Welsh sources. Appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth and later romances as one of Arthur’s knights.
Percival or Peredur
Introduced by Chretien de Troyes.
Lot, Loth or Leudonus
Introduced by Geoffrey as Arthur’s brother-in-law and King of Lothian. Married to either Anna or Morgause depending on later legends. In the Life of St Kentigern (Mungo) written in 1185, he is said to be the saint’s grandfather after Teneu is raped by Owain mab Urien making him a contemporary of Urien of Rheged. Welsh sources make him king of the Gododdin.
Thus many of our current concepts were not present in the early myths and stories. Merlin, the sword in the stone, the Round Table, Excalibur, the Grail, Camelot, and Avalon were all added in the twelfth century and we can see how the trend developed. Merlin, for example, is not mentioned by Nennius. In the Historia Brittonum the story of the two dragons attributed by Geoffrey to Merlin is actually given to Emrys Ambrosius, who is quite clearly the Ambrosius Aurelianus of Gildas. This is then a ‘Merlin’ a generation before any Arthur. However, the attached Annales Cambriae references a ‘Myrddin the wild’ in 573 which would be a generation or more after any Arthur. Geoffrey combines both characters many hundreds of years later and Latinises the name to Merlinus to avoid French or Latin speakers’ blushes from associating the word Myrddin with ‘merde’ or ‘merda’, despite the fact that in speech a Welsh -dd sounds like -th.
An early fourteenth-century tale, Sir Perceval of Galles, is another example of an entirely different story compared to Chretien de Troyes over a hundred years before. There is no Grail or Fisher King. Instead there is a magic ring. It is written in a style of parody and was used later by Geoffrey Chaucer. What this shows is how quickly stories develop and change. So when looking at Chretien’s stories in the twelfth century or the earliest Welsh legends, it is worth remembering the hundreds of years between the late fifth or early sixth century when these stories are supposedly set, and the earliest sources that have survived to the present.
Essentially, the Welsh tales leave us with an Arthur devoid of the trappings or stories we associate him with. In fact he’s a more mythical and magical figure fighting giants and giant boars. Yet the stories did appear. One wonders where the French writers got their inspiration if not from the stories of the day. And even if these are found to be false, we are still left with an Arthur figure and references to at least some of the characters connected to him, such as Uther and Guinevere. If one looks at the consistency in Arthur’s father and mother across all the different traditions:
Table 23: Arthur’s family
There is certainly some consistency regarding his parents. However, the proposed family trees differ significantly across the sources. In the traditional Welsh legends Igraine’s father is Amlawdd Wledig who marries a daughter of Cunedda. This places Arthur three generations after Cunedda and the same generation as Maelgwn and this contemporary with the five kings of Gildas. In Geoffrey of Monmouth’s version he is the grandson of Constantine, and Ambrosius is his uncle. The later romance versions build on this with various sisters and cousins. We have little information on Amlawdd Wledig, there’s more than one genealogy and none that are contemporary or credible historical sources. In short, we have a jumble of contradictory sources that lack any validity regarding a family tree. If we were to attempt a genealogy from the earliest sources it would look slightly different to Geoffrey of Monmouth and later French romances.
It is possible to see where some of the other concepts come from. The sword in the stone does have its equivalence in the medieval story of Saint Galgano (1148–81) where a sword is embedded in rock in the Abbey of San Galgano in Italy, and may have influenced Robert de Boron who was writing soon after.
In the Welsh Triads ‘Pen Rhionydd’ is listed as one of Arthur’s northern courts. It has been suggested this is Penrith in Cumbria and it may be worth noting a Neolithic stone ring called King Arthur’s Round Table is nearby. There are many such sites all over Britain: twenty-two Arthur’s stones, thirty Arthur’s Quoits (discus shaped stone); five tables and three round tables; eight seats; six Halls, camps or other types of residence; five graves and fifteen other sites referring to Arthur.1 They can’t all be connected to Arthur, and beyond local myth and legend there is absolutely no evidence linking any of them.
Genealogy of Arthur.
However, it is worth noting the absence of such sites in the south east. They are heavily concentrated around the Welsh coastline, with a smaller number in Cornwall, Somerset and the north. Similarly, the stories in the saints’ lives are mostly located in South Wales with the West Country also featuring alongside two references to Armorica. Additionally, while the alleged twelve battles can’t be located with any confidence, it is interesting that most of the credible theories do not involve the south east.
In summary, what we have is a single reference to Arthur in 830 by Nennius, 300 hundred years after he was supposed to have lived. There is one passing reference in the Y Gododdin which may originate between the seventh and eleventh centuries but wasn’t written down until the thirteenth. We have two lines referring to Badon and Camlann in the Annales Cambriae written in the tenth century, which, though it may reflect earlier composition, the lines themselves may have been added much later.
Arthurian locations in Welsh legends.
Arthurian landmarks.
Then we have Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work in the twelfth century which is highly suspect and in turn inspires an explosion of Arthurian stories. Many of the concepts we now associate with Arthur are added to the story then. Much later, Welsh stories and legends are written down and these reflect a more mythical and magical Arthur. It is debatable if they reflect an earlier tradition of stories, or if Geoffrey based some of his story on them. On that basis some might say the only evidence we have is the reference by Nennius in 830 and subsequent lines in the Annals Cambriae. All the other works are 500 years or more after any historical figure and could easily be based on a completely mythical character. Or indeed all based on the reference in Nennius, which itself is highly suspect and lacks credibility.
Let us look at the line in Y Gododdin:
