King Arthur, page 15
One possibility is that this was a hoax concerning an earlier hoax and highlights the need to treat any evidence with a healthy scepticism. There is a tendency to view evidence from the twelfth century, for example, with greater weight than it deserves; certainly more than a story written in modern times. While a modern story may have no historical value, we forget many of these tales were written 700 years or more after Arthur is supposed to have lived. In a similar vein, many modern theorists selectively pick out certain aspects of Geoffrey and other stories and mix them together in an attempt to build a coherent theory, neglecting to lay out the 90 per cent that has been cast aside. Later we will cover the genealogies that were also written many hundreds of years later. Theorists have used these and many of the names in Geoffrey’s work to build up a family tree. It is vital the reader looks to the original sources and not take the evidence at face value. There are a number of authors who have misrepresented and misspelt names to fit in with their theory. The reader will discover that many an ‘Arthur’ is not an Arthur at all, but Anthun, Atroys or Arthwys. There are as many people today willing to manipulate the evidence, or even lie for whatever purpose, as there were at any time since the fifth century.
In summary, we have a twelfth-century text, written 600 years after the events. It is contradictory and full of suspect material. Yet history does indeed ‘peep through the cracks’. On one hand the author is wholly unreliable, but on the other it shows a persistence of the legend and a receptive audience in the twelfth century. Additionally, as we shall see later, there is a way of interpreting the narrative that does not contradict other sources at all. This interpretation shouldn’t, of course, be mistaken for proof.
Chapter 13
The French Romances and Welsh Legends
We will now cover the other sources for the legend. They can be split into two parts. The first are the French romances, all of which post-date Geoffrey of Monmouth. They were inspired by his work and we can see how the story evolved to include many of the elements we now consider part of the Arthurian tale. It does suggest there was a tradition in Normandy and France that was receptive to this. There may well have been a Breton influence. The second are the Welsh legends. Some of these are thought to pre-date Geoffrey’s work and thus are an invaluable source of clues as to what the legend may have appeared like to audiences pre-tenth century. Unfortunately, the only surviving copies are much later and so it is difficult to ascertain how much they have been corrupted. It is worth noting when specific concepts were introduced, such as the Round Table or sword in the stone.
It is a fruitless task to look at these stories in any great depth or detail as they are corrupted and contradictory. Theories built on such ‘evidence’ start by building on sand and relying on tenuous links and tautology. Written down over 500 years and as much as 1,000 years after the events, they can tell us little about how the stories developed prior to that. We will therefore only briefly list the most famous texts. On their own they prove very little, if anything, but as a body they do demonstrate a ‘market’ for Arthurian stories in the Middle Ages. So we have a list of works in the first table below, written mostly 600 years after Arthur is supposed to have lived and derived or influenced almost entirely by Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work.
Table 20: The French romances
Literary source
Comments
Roman de Brut by Wace 1155
Norman French poem.
Literary history of Britain based on Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work.
First introduction of the Round Table.
Tristan and Iseult
Twelfth century various:
Thomas of Britain 1170s
Beroul 1170s
Folie Tristan d’Oxford 1175–1200
Prose Tristan 1230–40
Sir Tristram 1300 (first English version)
Love affair between a Cornish knight and an Irish princess, fiancée of King Mark of Cornwall.
Linked to Arthur for the first time in 1230s and through the later Welsh legends.
Joseph of Arimathea and Merlin
Robert de Boron
Late twelfth-century French poem
Joseph of Arimathea brings the Grail to Britain to the valley of Avaron, later translated to Avalon and identified with Glastonbury. Traditional tale of Merlin in connection with Arthur.
Introduces sword in an anvil placed on a stone.
First to connect the Grail with Jesus.
Introduces ‘Rich Fisher’ version of the later Fisher King.
romance poems
Chretien de Troyes
1170–90
French
Includes Arthur’s court and the knights of the Round Table.
Eric and Enide 1170
Cliges 1176
Yvain, the Knight of the Lion 1180
Lancelot, the knight of the Cart 1180
Percival, le conte du Graal 1190
The first to feature Lancelot as a main character and the affair between him and Guinevere.
Introduces the quest for the Holy Grail and The Fisher King.
Vulgate Cylcle or Prose
Lancelot
Unknown
1210–30
French
Five prose volumes introducing more Christian themes.
Estoire del Saint Grail
Estoire de Merlin
Lancelot Propre
Quest del Saint Graal
Mort Artu
Galahad’s quest for the Grail.
Post Vulgate Cycle
Unknown
1230–40
French
Similar to Vulgate Cycle and one of the biggest influences of Mallory’s later work.
Estoire del Saint Grail
Estoire de Merlin
Quest del Saint Graal
Mort Artu
Introduces Arthur’s incestuous affair which produces Mordred.
Introduces the receiving of Excalibur from the Lady in the Lake.
Links Tristan to the Grail quest.
Le Morte d’Arthur
Thomas Mallory
1485
Middle English
Combines many of the themes from Geoffrey together with all the romance poems and stories. One of the best known works of Arthurian literature and the basis of many later and modern adaptations.
The Welsh legends almost certainly pre-date both the French romances and Geoffrey of Monmouth’s book. However, they weren’t actually written down until much later and can be seen in the following manuscripts:
1. White Book of Rhydderch, c.1350 (Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch, National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS 4- 5).
2. Black Book of Carmarthen, c. 1350 (Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS 1).
3. Red Book of Hergest, after 1382 (Llyfr Coch Hergest, Jesus College Oxford MS 111).
4. The Book of Taliesin, dated to first half of fourteenth century but may include material from the tenth century, although not as far back as a sixth-century poet called Taliesin (Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS 2).
5. Book of Aneirin, dated to around 1265 but thought to be a copy of a ninth-century original. It contains the poem, Y Gododdin concerning a battle in 600, and the sixth-century poet Aneirin that may be contemporary.
6. Triads of Britain, dated to thirteenth century, containing both mythic and historical figures and events (Trioedd Ynys Prydein, National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS 16).
7. Mabinogion is a collection of many of the works already mentioned, brought together in an eighteenth-century compilation. The stories contained are believed to have originated in the twelfth century and may have pre-dated Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Below is a brief outline of the relevant stories:
Table 21: Welsh legends
Literary source
Comments
Preiddeu Annfwn
‘The spoils of Annwfn’
Preserved in the Book of Taliesin dated to the early fourteenth century.
Possibly originated tenth century.
Estimates range for original version from 600 to 900.
Arthur undertakes a dangerous journey to Annfwn, Welsh name for the Celtic Otherworld (realm of deities or the dead). Out of three boatloads of warriors only seven return. Arthur’s ship is named Prydwen.
The poem is not clear but a cauldron of the Chief of Annwn guarded bynine maidens appears to be one of the spoils taken.
Similar to the Cauldron of Diwrnach which Arthur takes from Ireland in Culhwch and Olwen.
Also similar to story of Bran and Branwen in the Mabinogion.
Possibly the basis of the Grail legends.
Pa Gur
‘who is the gatekeeper’
Possibly originated tenth century.
From the Black Book of Carmarthen in mid-thirteenth century.
Dialogue between Arthur and a gatekeeper in which Arthur boasts of his prowess and that of his companions including Cat the Fair. Mentions son of Uthr Pendragon’s servant. Another fought at the Battle of Tryfrwyd, along with Bedwyr and Arthur, one the twelve battles in Historia Brittonum.
Mentions Arthur fighting first a witch and then mythical ‘dog-heads’ at Edinburgh.
Cai fights nine witches at the peak of Ystafngwn and a terrible cat of Palug. The former may be a reference to the nine maidens in ‘The Spoils of Annwfn’, the nine witches of Gloucester in Peredur or in the Life of St Samson.
Stanzas of the Graves Ninth- or tenth-century origin.
Preserved in the Black Book of Carmarthen mid-thirteenth century.
A number of short verses of renowned persons. One verse ends with:
‘The grave of Arthur is a mystery’.
Elegy of Geraint son of Erbin Ninth- or tenth-century origin.
Preserved in the Black Book of Carmarthen mid-thirteenth century.
Poem celebrating Geraint and his deeds at the Battle of Llongborth.
‘In Llongborth I saw Arthur, And brave men who hewed down with steel, emperor and conductor of the toil.’
Llongborth may be identified with Langport in Somerset or Portsmouth in Hampshire. Geraint may also be referred to in the early poem Y Gododdin as ‘Geraint of the South’.
A later Welsh poem, Geraint and Enid, is linked to Erec and Enide by Chretien de Troyes.
Triads of Britain
Eleventh to fourteenth century
Found in:
Peniarth 16 manuscript, thirteenth century.
Red book of Hergest 1400
Fragment in White Book of Rhydderch 1325.
A rhetorical poem that groups things into threes. Multiple mentions of Arthur and related themes. For example: Three unfortunate counsels of the Island of Britain:
To give place for their horses’ fore-feet … to Julius Carsar; to allow Horsa and Hengist and Rhonwen into this island; the three fold dividing by Arthur of his men with Medrawd at Camlan.
Mentions various other characters: Urien, Uther, Owain, Gwenhwyfar, Medrawd, Emrys Weldig (Ambrosius), Gwrtheyrn the Thin (Vortigern), Gwerthefyr (Vortimer), Llachau son of Arthur, Cei, Geraint and Camlan.
Culhwch and Olwen
anonymous
Original possibly eleventh century.
Found in:
Red book of Hergest 1400
Fragment in White Book of Rhydderch 1325.
Culhwch wishes to marry Olwen, daughter of the giant Ysbadden. He travels to Arthur’s court in Celliwig, Cornwall to get Arthur’s help in a number of tasks the giant sets him. Only a small number are recorded including:
The hunt for the boar Twrch Trwyth referenced in Historia Brittonum.
The rescue of Mabon from a watery prison.
The quest for the cauldron of Diwrnach in Ireland. Arthur kills The Black Witch.
The tasks completed, the giant is killed and the lovers marry.
Many of the tasks are similar to tales in other Irish legends.
Geraint and Enid Found in:
Red book of Hergest 1400
Fragment in White Book of Rhydderch 1325.
Geraint, one of Arthur’s knights and son of Erbin of Dumnonia, and his romance with Enid.
Likely derived from Chretien de Troyes’s Erec and Enide.
Owain or Lady of the Fountain
Original possibly eleventh century. Found in:
Red book of Hergest 1400 and White Book of Rhydderch 1325.
Owain, one of Arthur’s knights, based on historical Owain son of Urien, in a romance with the Lady of the Fountain.
Likely derived from Chretien de Troyes’s Yvain, the knight of the lion.
Similar also to tale in Life of St Mungo (aka St Kentigern) where the saint’s father, Owain, tries to woo Lot of Lothian’s daughter.
Peredur son of Efrawg
Found in:
Red book of Hergest 1400 and White Book of Rhydderch 1325.
Peredur travels to King Arthur’s court and proceeds on a number of adventures including a similarity with the Fisher King, although the Grail is replaced by a severed head in this version.
Likely derived from Chretien de Troyes’s Perceval, the Story of the Grail.
Brut by Layamon Late twelfth century
First English version of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain
Brut y Brenhinedd Thirteenth century.
Middle Welsh version of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain
Brut Tysilio Fifteenth century.
Initially attributed to the seventh-century Welsh saint, Tysilio.
Scholars now believe it derives from Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Dream of Rhonabwy Written end of twelfth century, found in:
Red Book of Hergest 1400.
Set in twelfth century. Rhonabwy falls asleep and dreams he is back in Arthur’s time. He meets Iddawg, ‘the Churn of Britain’, called this because he caused the battle of Camlann by distorting messages between the king, or emperor as he is titled here, and his enemy Medrawd.
He is led to Arthur’s camp before the Battle of Badon. Arthur is playing gwyddbwyll, a chess-like game, with Owain, son of Urien. The same Urien who is mentioned in Historia Brittonum and other sources as King of Rheged (Cumbria/Southern Scotland area) in the late sixth century.
The Saxons, led by Osla Gyllellfawr (Osla big knife), ask for and receive a truce. Arthur’s army heads for Cornwall and Rhonabwy wakes up. Osla is recorded in Culhwch and Olwen as part of Arthur’s retinue.
Alternatively, it could refer to Octa, son or grandson of Hengist and King of Kent in the early sixth century.
Y Gododdin
Book of Aneurin thirteenth century dated to seventh–eleventh century.
Welsh poem about the men of the kingdom of Gododdin, around Din Eidyn (Edinburgh). 300 fought the Angles of Deira and Bernicia at Catraeth (possibly Catterick) around 600, and only one returned. Arthur is mentioned in passing in comparison to another warrior.
‘He charged before three hundred of the finest, He cut down both centre and wing, He excelled in the forefront of the noblest host, He gave gifts of horses from the herd in winter.
He fed black ravens on the rampart of a fortress
Though he was no Arthur
Among the powerful ones in battle, In the front rank, Gwawrddur was a palisade.’
The Chair of the Prince
Preserved in the Book of Taliesin dated to the early fourteenth century.
Possibly originated tenth century.
‘Has he not brought from Annwn
The horses of the pale burden bearer
The princely old man, The third deeply wise one, Is the blessed Arthur.
Arthur the blessed, Renowned in song, In the front of battle, He was full of activity.’
The Elegy of Uther Pendragon
Preserved in the Book of Taliesin dated to the early fourteenth century. Possibly originated tenth century.
‘Do I not share my protection a ninth part to the battling Arthur’
Journey to Deganwy
Preserved in the Book of Taliesin dated to the early fourteenth century. Possibly originated tenth century.
‘Silent as fools, as at the battle of Badon With Arthur, chief giver of feasts, with his tall blades red, from the battle which all men remember.’
You will notice that the Welsh stories are more mythical in nature and don’t contain many of the themes of the French stories. Below I have shown when some of these themes were added to the story. You will note that many of those we associate with Arthur are actually very late additions to the legend.
Table 22: Arthurian themes
Concept and date
Comments
Round table
1155
First introduced by Wace’s Roman de Brut in 1155. Created to prevent quarrels among his barons. Brut by Layamon added that it was made by a Cornish carpenter after violence at a Christmas feast.
There are no references in the Welsh sources.
Charlemagne (742–814) is said to have possessed a round table decorated with a map of Rome.
Celtic custom of warriors sitting in a circle round the king or lead warrior was often depicted in legends.
Merlin
Tenth century
First reference is in the tenth century Annales Cambriae for 573 and the battle of Arfderydd after which ‘Myrddin went mad’ (which places him thirty-six years after Arthur’s death at Camlan according to same source).
Legend of Myrddin Wylit (the Wild) is similar to Lailoken, who features in a twelfth-century Life of St Kentigern (or Mungo, who lived in the Strathclyde area circa 600).
The Book of Taliesin also contains an early reference in the ‘Great Prophesy of Britain’, although it may be a different person, Merdin son of Madog. Another Taliesin poem appears to suggest the author is known as Taliesin and Merddin.
