Indigenous Continent, page 63
5.Joshua L. Reid, The Sea Is My Country, 88–163, 211, 272–73; SA, 2:119, 210–11.
6.George E. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk (1937; repr., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975), 72 (“crack it”); Charles Page to W. Hoffman, May 28, 1855, and Ed. Johnson to Hoffman, October 10, 1855, Sen. Ex. Doc. 91, 34th Cong., 1st Sess., 11; Alfred J. Vaughan to Alfred Cumming, March 21, 1854, in Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824–1881: Upper Missouri Agency, 1824–1874; 1852–1864 (Missoula: University of Montana—Missoula, Mansfield Library, 1956), microfilm, roll 885 (“easily”); David J. Wishart, An Unspeakable Sadness: The Dispossession of the Nebraska Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 101–40; Anne F. Hyde, Empires, Nations, and Families: A History of the North American West, 1800–1860 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011), 478–80.
7.LA, 227–30; Robert M. Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States Army and the Indian, 1848–1865 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967), 146–53.
8.C. K. Warren, Preliminary Report of the Explorations in Nebraska and Dakota in the Years 1855-’56-’57 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1875), 18–20, 51–52.
9.Elliott West, The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 194–201; Thomas Twiss, “Proceedings of a Council,” September 18, 1859, Sen. Ex. Doc. 35, 36th Cong., 1st Sess., 7 (“now all destroyed,” “send his white”); Paul Conrad, Apache Diaspora: Four Centuries of Displacement and Survival (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021), 190.
10. Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue, 161–63, 167–72; Samuel Truett, Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 47–49; Conrad, Apache Diaspora, 190; Megan Kate, The Union, the Confederacy, and Native Peoples in the Fight in the West (New York: Scribner, 2020), 46; Claudia B. Haake, “Resistance and Removal: Yaqui and Navajo Identities in the Southwest Borderlands,” in Native Diasporas: Indigenous Identities and Settler Colonialism in the Americas, ed. Gregory D. Smithers and Brooke N. Newman (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014), 237, 267–72; T. H. Espy to Sam Houston, February 15, 1860, in The Indian Papers of Texas and the Southwest, 1825–1916, ed. Dorman H. Winfrey and James M. Day (1966; repr., Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1995), 4:9 (“the whole frontier”); Andrés Reséndez, The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), 242 (“the seat”).
11. “Treaty with the Sioux—Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands, 1851,” “Treaty with the Sioux—Mdewakanton and Wahpakoota Bands,” “Treaty with the Sioux—Mendawakanton and Wahpahoota Bands, 1858,” “Treaty with the Sioux—Sisseeton and Wahpaton Bands, 1858,” in IALT, 2:588–93, 781–89; Barbara T. Newcombe, “ ‘A Portion of the American People’: The Sioux Sign a Treaty in Washington in 1858,” Minnesota History 45 (Fall 1976): 82–96; Gary Clayton Anderson, Kinsmen of Another Kind: Dakota-White Relations in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1650–1862 (1984; repr. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 177–260; Waziyaţawiŋ Angela Wilson, Remember This!: Dakota Decolonization and the Eli Taylor Narratives (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 5–6; Winifred W. Barton, John P. Williams: A Brother to the Sioux (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1919), 49–50 (“So far as,” 49).
12. H. H. Sibley to Alex Ramsey, August 20, 1862, and John Pope to Sibley, September 28, 1862, in Minnesota in the Civil and Indian Wars, comp. and ed., Board of Commissioners (St. Paul, MN: Pioneer Press, 1893), 2:257 (“they are”); Alvin M. Josephy, The Civil War in the American West (New York: Viking, 1991), 133–39; Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 261. For a comprehensive account of the U.S.-Dakota war, see Gary Clayton Anderson, Massacre in Minnesota: The Dakota War, the Most Ethnic Conflict in American History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019).
13. Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 226–66; YSF, 255 (“first fight”). For the changing character of the United States, see Jerome J. Rockwell, Indian Affairs and the Administrative State in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 217–45; Max M. Edling, A Hercules in the Cradle: War, Money, and the American State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014); and Steven Hahn, A Nation without Borders: The United States and Its World in an Age of Civil Wars, 1830–1910 (New York: Viking, 2016).
14. LA, 255–64; “Henry Halleck to John Pope, November 3, 1864,” South Dakota Historical Collections 8 (1916): 348–49; Ari Kelman, A Misplaced Massacre: Struggling over the Memory of Sand Creek (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), xi, 22–24; Brigham D. Madsen, Glory Hunter: A Biography of Patrick Edward Connor (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1990), 78–80. For the United States as an imperial nation, see Hahn, Nation without Borders; and Robert G. Thrower, “Causalities and Consequences of the Creek War,” in Tohopeka: Rethinking the Creek War and the War of 1812, ed. Kathryn E. Holland Braund (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 24 (“Nits make lice”).
15. J. R. Hanson to D. S. Stanley, May 24, 1867, Letters Received by HQS, Department of Dakota, 1866–1877, M1734, National Archives, roll 1 (“destroy all”); White, “It’s Your Misfortune”, 96–97; Kingsley M. Bray, Crazy Horse: A Lakota Life (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006), 98–102; N. B. Buford to E. M. Stanton, June 6, 1867, National Archives and Records Service, Record Group 393, “Special Files” of Headquarters, created by the Military Division of the Missouri, Relating to Military Operations and Administration, 1863–1885, M1495; YSF, 259 (“They killed”); LA, 280.
16. LA, 281–93.
17. ARCIA, 1867, 314–15 (“have been doing”). For what would later be called the Washita Massacre, see Stan Hoig, The Battle of the Washita: The Sheridan-Custer Indian Campaign 1867–1869 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976).
18. LA, 303, 322–32; ARCIA, 1870, 208 (“white fool”); Frederick E. Hoxie, Parading through History: The Making of the Crow Nation in America, 1805–1935 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 80–82, 100–107; Dexter E. Clapp to Edward P. Smith, September 10, 1877, in ARCIA, 1875, 303 (“the larger part of”).
19. White, “It’s Your Misfortune”, 99–101; Megan Kate Nelson, The Three-Cornered War: The Union, the Confederacy, and Native Peoples in the Fight for the West (New York: Scribner, 2020), 196; “Report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission, January 7, 1868,” accessed December 1, 2020, http://history.furman.edu/[SXB]benson/docs/peace.htm, 110 (“very great”); James Brooks, Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 331–32; Reséndez, The Other Slavery, 242–44; Peter Cozzens, The Earth Is Weeping: The Epic Story of the Indian Wars for the American West (London: Atlantic, 2016), 380–91; Peter Iverson, Diné: A History of the Navajos (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), 60–73; Robert M. Utley, Geronimo (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 27; Alice L. Baumgartner, “The Line of Positive Safety: Borders and Boundaries in the Rio Grande Valley, 1848–1880,” JAH 101 (March 2015): 1106–22; Conrad, Apache Diaspora, 187; Lance R. Blyth, Chiricahua and Janos: Communities of Violence in the Southwestern Borderlands, 1680–1880 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012), 155–86.
20. Hampton Sides, Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West (New York: Doubleday, 2006), 372–77; Jennifer Graber, Religion and the Struggle for the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 69; CE, 308–9, 319–25.
21. CE, 313–30; Pekka Hämäläinen, “Reconstructing the Great Plains,” Journal of the Civil War Era 6 (December 2016): 493; ARCIA, 1866, 145 (“the most”).
22. David La Vere, Contrary Neighbors: Southern Plains and Removed Indians in Indian Territory (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), 167–76; Jennifer Graber, The Gods of Indian Country: Religion and the Struggle for the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 109–12; CE, 336–41; Juliana Barr, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 207–8.
23. P. E. Sheridan to E. D. Townsend, October 25, 1878, in Report of the Secretary of War, 1878 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1878), 1: 10, 33 (“no other nation,” 10; “no other army,” 33); Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Ordeal of Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 181–82; David E. Wilkins, American Indian Sovereignty and the U.S. Supreme Court: The Masking of Justice (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 12; Ron Chernow, Grant (London: Head of Zeus, 2017), 657–59. For Grant’s vision, see Ulysses S. Grant, “First Annual Message,” December 6, 1869, in A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, comp. James D. Richardson (New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1897–1922), 9:3993. For the larger context, see Hahn, Nation without Borders.
24. Karl Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn: An Apache Massacre and the Violence of History (New York: Penguin, 2008).
25. Conrad, Apache Diaspora, 190–98; Sam Truett, “Borderlands and Border Crossings,” in Cambridge History of America and the World, ed. Jay Sexton and Kristin Hoganson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 2:594–616. For infrastructure, see William Adler, Engineering Expansion: The U.S. Army and Economic Development, 1787–1860 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021). For railroads, see James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Anglo-Worlds, 1783–1939 (New York: University of Oxford Press, 2009), 107–8.
26. Eve Ball, In the Days of Victorio: Recollections of a Warm Springs Apache (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1970), 25–26 (“Ration cards”).
27. SA, 4:159; LA, 299–330, 351–70; “Red Horse Account,” in Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views of the Great Sioux War, 1876–1877, comp. and ed. Jerome A. Greene (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 37 (“did not take”).
28. Richard Slotkin, The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800–1890 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985), 458 (“hill of death”); LA, 370–73; Beth LaDow, The Medicine Line: Life and Death on an American Borderland (New York: Routledge, 2001), 40–42, 65–66; Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: W.W. Norton, 2011), esp. 59–62, 134–39, 496–98; The Indian Journal, December 7, 1876, re: visit of the Sioux Indian Territory, University of Oklahoma Libraries Western History Collection, accessed January 22, 2021, https://digital.libraries.ou.edu/cdm/ref/collection/creek/id/6 (“my country”).
29. Hermann Lehmann, Nine Years among the Indians, 1870–1879: The Story of the Captivity and Life of a Texan among the Indians (1927; repr., University of New Mexico Press, 1993), 75–90; Thom Hatch, The Last Days of George Armstrong Custer (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2015), 203–13; LA, 370–73; David D. Smits, “The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo: 1865–1883,” WHQ 25 (Autumn 1994): 312–38. For the postal offices, see Cameron Blevins, Paper Trails: The US Post and the Making of the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021).
30. Elliott West, The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 60–70.
31. West, Last Indian War, 98–155, 243–99; LaDow, Medicine Line, 71; Francis Haines, “Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce Warriors,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 45 (January 1954): 1–7.
32. Adam R. Hodge, Ecology and Ethnogenesis: An Environmental History of the Wind River Shoshones, 1000–1868 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2019), 116–37, 212, 238–39; Dale L. Morgan, “Shoshonean Peoples and the Overland Trails: Frontiers of the Utah Superintendency of Indian Affairs,” ed. Richard L. Saunders (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2007), 209 (“are so broken,” “not depend”); Reséndez, Other Slavery, 266–75.
33. For this summary of Blackfoot history, I relied on Ryan Hall, Beneath the Backbone of the World: Blackfoot People and the North American Borderlands, 1720–1877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020). For the Marias River massacre and its larger context, see Andy Graybill, The Red and the White: A Family Saga of the American West (New York: Liveright, 2013).
34. Theodore Binnema, Common and Contested Ground: A Human and Environmental History of the Northwestern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001), 106–96; HAC, plate 62.
35. Truett, “Borderlands,” 871–73; Daschuk, Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation and the Loss of Aboriginal Life (Regina, SK: University of Regina Press, 2013), 99–126; SA, 2:69–71. For a comprehensive study of the pemmican trade, see George Colpitts, Pemmican Empire: Food, Trade, and the Last Bison Hunts in the North American Plains (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
36. Robert N. Watt, “Victorio’s Military and Political Leadership of the Warm Springs Apaches,” War in History, November 2011, 457–94; Eve Ball, Indeh, an Apache Odyssey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980), 2–9; “Lozen: An Apache Woman Warrior,” in Sifters: Native American Women’s Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 98–103.
37. Truett, Fugitive Landscapes, 57–61, 179–226; Conrad, Apache Diaspora, 224–50; Cozzens, Earth Is Weeping, 362–79.
EPILOGUE: REVENGE AND REVIVAL
1.Jeffrey Ostler, The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 222–29; Jerry Green, “The Medals of Wounded Knee,” Nebraska History 75 (Summer 1994): 200–208. For the broader context of the Ghost Dance and its modernizing, forward-looking thrust, see Louis S. Warren, God’s Red Son: The Ghost Dance Religion and the Making of Modern America (New York: Basic Books, 2017).
2.J. David Hacker, “Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead,” Civil War History 57 (December 2011): 307–48; Pekka Hämäläinen, “The Shapes of Power: Indians, Europeans, and North American Worlds from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century,” in Contested Spaces of Early America, ed. Juliana Barr and Edward Countryman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 65; Richard White, The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 604–5. For the two simultaneous reconstructions, which Elliot West calls “the Greater Reconstruction,” see West, “Reconstructing Race,” Western Historical Quarterly 34 (April 2003), 6–26; Philip J. Deloria, “From Nation to Neighborhood: Land, Policy, Culture, Colonialism, and Empire in U.S.-Indian Relations,” in The Cultural Turn in U.S. History: Past, Present, and Future, ed. James W. Cook, Lawrence B. Clickman, and Michael O’Malley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 364; K. Tsianina Lomawaima and Jeffrey Ostler, “Reconsidering Richard Henry Pratt: Cultural Genocide and Native Liberation in an Era of Racial Oppression,” Journal of American Indian Education 57 (Spring 2018): 79–100 (“kill the Indian,” 79).
3.Richard Henry Pratt, “The Advantages of Mingling Indians with the Whites,” in Americanizing the American Indians: Writings by the “Friends of the Indian” 1880–1900, ed. Francis Paul Prucha (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 260–71.
4.SG, 186; Sami Lakomäki, Gathering Together: The Shawnee People through Diaspora and Nationhood, 1600–1870 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 15 (“the greatest”).
5.Sven Beckert, “American Danger: United States Empire, Eurafrica, and the Territorialization of Industrial Capitalism, 1870–1950,” AHR 122 (October 2017): 1137–70 (“monstrous,” “greatest menace,” 1137). For genocide, ethnic cleansing, and massacres, see Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Ari Kelman, Misplaced Massacre: Struggling over the Memory of Sand Creek (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); Gary Clayton Anderson, Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820–1875 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005); Karl Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn: An Apache Massacre and the Violence of History (New York: Penguin, 2008); and Andy Graybill, The Red and the White: A Family Saga of the American West (New York: Liveright, 2013).
6.Benjamin Madley, “Reexamining the American Genocide Debate: Meaning, Historiography, and New Methods,” AHR 120 (February 2015): 1. The seventy percent figure comes from SG, 12.
7.Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 43; The Canadian Encyclopedia, s.v. “Indigenous Peoples in Canada,” accessed January 4, 2021, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-people; World Population Review, “Native American Population, 2021,” accessed May 12, 2021, https://worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/native-american-population.
8.I am drawing here from David Treuer, The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 to the Present (New York: Riverhead Books, 2019); and David Treuer, “Return the National Parks to the Tribes,” Atlantic, May 2021 (“America has”).
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
University of Oxford
Boston Public Library
Sutro Library
New York Public Library
Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library
Library and Archives Canada
John Mackenzie Burke
Library of Congress Geography and Map Division
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
Library of Congress Geography and Map Division
Library of Congress Geography and Map Division
Library of Congress Geography and Map Division
National Gallery of Canada
Library of Congress Geography and Map Division
