Indigenous Continent, page 53
18. Evan Haefeli, “Kieft’s War and the Cultures of Violence in Colonial America,” in Lethal Imagination: Violence and Brutality in American History, ed. Michael A. Bellesiles (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 17–31; Lipman, “ ‘Meanes to Knitt Them Togeather,’ ” 14.
19. “Declaration of Harmen Meyndertsen van den Bogaert and Others respecting an Attack by the Raritan Indians,” in New York Historical Manuscripts: Dutch, vol. 2, Registrar of the Provincial Secretary, 1642–1647, ed. and trans. Arnold J. F. Van Laer (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, 1974), 409 (“instead of,” “began to scoff,” “all armed”); NWA, 98.
20. David Pietersz. de Vries, “Korte historiael ende journaels aenteyckeninge,” in Original Narratives of Early American History, vol. 8, Narratives of New Netherland, 1609–1664, ed. J. Franklin Jameson (New York: Scribner’s, 1909), 227–28 (“A great shrieking,” 227; “Infants,” “some with,” “in the same,” 228).
21. Haefeli, “Kieft’s War,” 32–35.
22. Jacobs, Colony of New Netherland, 78–79 (“the poor,” “all together”); Charles Gehring, ed. and trans., Correspondence, 1647–1653, New Netherlands Documents (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000), xx (“within a cannon shot”); Wayne Bodle, “The Middle Colonies,” in Converging Worlds, ed. Breen, 227.
23. Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675, 3rd ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 95 (“exercised,” “except”); OBK, 32. For the centrality of guns in Native American warfare, trade, and diplomacy, see David J. Silverman, Thundersticks: Firearms and the Violent Transformation of Native America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).
CHAPTER 7: THE PEQUOTS SHALL NO MORE BE CALLED PEQUOTS
1.Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 38–39; Yasuhide Kawashima, Igniting King Philip’s War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002).
2.Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675, 3rd ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 155–57; Michael Parker, John Winthrop: Founding the City upon a Hill (New York: Routledge, 2014), 90–91; “Articles of Agreement between the English in Conneticutt and the Indian Sachems,” September 21, 1638, Yale Digital Collections, http://findit.library.yale.edu/catalog/digcoll:2389 (“shall no more”); Michael L. Fickes, “ ‘They Could Not Endure That Yoke’: The Captivity of Pequot Women and Children after the War of 1637,” NEQ 73 (March 2000): 60–61; Christine M. DeLucia, Memory Lands: King Philip’s War and the Place of Violence in the Northeast (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018), 290–95; “Treaty of Hartford, Articles of Agreement between the English in Connecticut in 1638,” Venture Smith’s Colonial Connecticut, accessed November 23, 2021, https://venturesmithcolonialct.org/library/treaty-of-hartford-1638 (“as soon as”).
3.Michael Leroy Oberg, “ ‘We Are All the Sachems from East to West’: A New Look at Miantonomi’s Campaign of Resistance,” NEQ 77 (September 2004): 478–99; Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 161–63; John W. De Forest, History of the Indians of Connecticut (Hartford, CT: Wm. Jas Hamersley, 1852), 153–200. I have read De Forest’s detailed History against the grain. Instead of seeing Uncas as self-centered opportunist, I have examined his actions as a sachem, a leader of his people. The picture that emerges is different.
4.SA, 1:153; Robert D. Mitchel, “American Origins and Regional Institutions: The Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 73 (September 1983): 413; Stephen Warren, The Worlds the Shawnees Made: Migration and Violence in Early America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 85–88.
5.BR, 129; Richard Hakluyt, ed., The Principall Nauigations, Voiages, and Discoueries of the English Nation (London: George Ralph Newberie, 1589), 723; Bruce M. Trigger, Natives and Newcomers: Canada’s “Heroic Age” Reconsidered (Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1985), 135–37, 147–48.
6.David Hackett Fischer, Champlain’s Dream: The European Founding of North America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008), 42–60; Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 64–65.
7.Samuel de Champlain, The Works of Samuel de Champlain, ed. H. P. Biggar (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1922–36), 1:137 (“secure”); Champlain, Works, 2:99–100 (“shot straight,” 99; “astonished,” 100); P. F. X. de Charlevoix, History and General Description of New France, trans. and ed. John Gilmary Shea (New York: Francis P. Harper, 1900), 2:7–9; Fischer, Champlain’s Dream, 5:227–80; NWA, 92–93; Daniel P. Barr, Unconquered: The Iroquois League at War in Colonial America (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006), 20; JR, 1:109.
8.OL, 6–7, 31–39; Bruce G. Trigger, Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660 (Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University, 1987), 27–31; NWA, 36; Colin Calloway, One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West before Lewis and Clark (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 220. For early trade with Europeans, see EW, 10–11.
9.Barr, Unconquered, 31.
10. JR, 6:297 (“The Beaver does,” “It makes kettles,” “making sport”); Champlain, Works, 6:197 (“of both sexes”); Charlevoix, History and General Description, 41; Allan Greer, Property and Dispossession: Natives, Empires and Land in Early Modern North America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 154–61.
11. Sarah M. S. Pearsall, “Native American Men—and Women—at Home in Plural Marriages,” Gender & History 27 (November 2015): 591–610; Greer, Property and Dispossession, 154.
12. Charlevoix, History and General Description, 41; Samuel de Champlain, “Abstract of the Discoveries in New France, 1631,” in NYCD, 9:1 (“do not deny”).
13. JR, 10:77 (“his body,” “master,” “he would”).
14. SA, 1:50–51.
CHAPTER 8: THE RISE OF THE FIVE NATIONS LEAGUE
1.OL, 9–17, 30–31; Leanne Simpson, “Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships,” Wicazo Sa Review 23 (Fall 2008): 29–42.
2.Nancy Shoemaker, “Introduction,” in Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women, ed. Shoemaker (New York: Routledge, 1995), 7–8; Shoemaker, “Kateri Tekakwitha’s Tortuous Path to Sainthood,” in Negotiators of Change, 61–62; Judith Brown, “Economic Organization and the Position of Women among the Iroquois,” Ethnohistory 17 (Summer 1970): 151–67 (“nothing,” 153); OL, 1, 30–49; Timothy J. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier (New York: Viking Penguin, 2008), 23–30; José António Brandão, ed., Nation Iroquoise: A Seventeenth-Century Ethnography of the Iroquois (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 63 (“He then”); JR, 51:237 (“Their policy”); Robert Launay, “Lafitau Revisited: American ‘Savages’ and Universal History,” Anthropologica 52, no. 2 (2010): 340–41.
3.Chad L. Anderson, The Storied Landscape of Iroquoia: History, Conquest, and Memory in the Native Northwest (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2020), 137–38.
4.OL, 55–57; JR, 5:203 (“had always,” “had assisted,” “he himself”).
5.John Winthrop to Sir Simonds D’Ewes, July 24, 1634, Papers of John Winthrop Family, 1537–1990, in Massachusetts Historical Society, Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, vol. 7, Transactions: 1900–1902 (Boston: The Society, 1905), 71–72 (“I am still,” 71); BR, 162.
6.JR, 15:41 (“yet know”); OL, 58–59; Matthew Dennis, Cultivating a Landscape of Peace: Iroquois Encounters in Seventeenth-Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), esp. 85–91.
7.JR, 26:57 (“All the people”); MG, 1–23; P. F. X. de Charlevoix, History and General Description of New France, trans. and ed. John Gilmary Shea (New York: Francis P. Harper, 1900), 209.
8.Arnoldus Montanaus, Description of New Netherland (Amsterdam, 1671), 117 (“streaked”); OL, 94–95; Lois M. Feister, “Linguistic Communication between the Dutch and Indians in New Netherland, 1609–1664,” Ethnohistory 20 (Winter 1973): 36–37.
9.JR, 27:249–51 (“as a mark,” 249; “We have,” 251).
10. JR, 27:257, 261 (“There,” 257; “be but one,” 261).
11. JR, 41:79 (“the fury,” “the very end”); Michael Witgen, An Infinity of Nations: How the Native New World Shaped Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 19–21; Heidi Bohaker, “ ‘Nindoodemag’: The Significance of Algonquian Kinship Networks in the Eastern Great Lakes Region, 1600–1701,” WMQ 63 (January 2006): 23–52; EW, 80; Allan Greer, Property and Dispossession: Natives, Empires and Land in Early Modern North America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 146.
12. MG, 1–23; Charlevoix, History and General Description, 209.
13. Daniel P. Barr, Unconquered: The Iroquois League at War in Colonial America (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006), 15; OL, 31–38; EW, 290; JR, 24:295 (“skilled in handling”); JR, 44:61–63, 191 (“must not take,” “must prevent,” “in sight of,” 191). For a broader view of ritualistic and real cannibalism, see Carla Cevasco, “This Is My Body: Communion and Cannibalism in Colonial New England and New France,” NEQ 89 (December 2016): 556–86; Henry R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois: Or Contributions to American History, Antiquities, and General Ethnology (New York: Bartlett & Welford, 1846), 29, 51 (“their nationality,” 29; “a body cut,” 51).
14. JR, 41:79 (“all the four”); JR, 42:55 (“My brothers”).
15. JR, 44:61–63, 213 (“Were one,” 63); JR, 45:213 (“it is beyond”).
16. JR, 44:117–19; JR, 45:189 (“Everywhere,” 189); JR, 46:205 (“If they”); JR, 47:107 (“filled with fire”); “Instructions for Sieur Gaudais Sent by the King to Canada,” in NYCD, 9:9–10 (“all the French,” 10); OL, 98–99. For the filles du roi, see Peter Gagné, King’s Daughters and Founding Mothers: Filles du Roi, 1663–1673 (Pawtucket, RI: Quinton, 2001).
17. OL, 85; Johannes Megapolensis, “A Short Account of the Mohawk Indians, Their Country, Language, Stature, Dress, Religion, and Government, Thus Described and Recently, August 26, 1644,” in In Mohawk Country: Early Narratives of a Native People, ed. Dean R. Snow, Charles T. Gehring, and William A. Starna (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 41 (“the Principal”); “Marie de L’Incarnation to Her Son, 1667,” in Interpreting a Continent: Voices from Colonial America, ed. Kathleen DuVal and John DuVal (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), 195; “Propositions Made by Mohawk Sachems,” October 19, 1659, in NYCD, 13:122 (“it is very wrong,” “dogs,” “rascals, “live with them”).
CHAPTER 9: ENEMIES OF THE FAITH
1.JR, 34:25 (“perceived”).
2.JR, 34:27 (“The Iroquois,” “Overwhelmed”).
3.JR, 34:141 (“My children”).
4.Allan Greer, “Introduction,” in The Jesuit Relations: Natives and Missionaries in Seventeenth-Century North America, ed. Greer (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000), 3–12; Allan Greer, Mohawk Saint: Catherine Tekakwitha and the Jesuits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 75. For Jesuits as empire-builders, see Bronwen McShea, Apostles of Empire: The Jesuits and New France (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2019).
5.JR, 34:25, 123–25 (“marked,” “enemies of the Hurons,” 123; “This village,” 125); Thomas J. Craughwell, Death in the Wilderness: The Harrowing Story of the Eight Martyrs of North America (New York: Penguin, 2017); “A Veritable Account of the Martyrdom and Blessed Death of Father Jean Breboeuf and of Father Gabriel L’Alemant, in New France, in the Country of the Hurons, by the Iroquois, Enemies of Faith,” in Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: A Selection, ed. S. R. Mealing (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1978), https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zt2f2 (“enemies of the faith”).
6.JR, 34:137, 197, 205, 207, 217 (“lest they,” “scattering,” 197; “infested,” 207); JR, 35:59, 79, 107 (“in the sight,” 59; “flung themselves,” 77; “to find death,” 79).
7.JR, 35:81, 89, 163, 189 (“to make some,” 81; “the spirit,” 163; “My pen,” 189); JR, 35:283; JR, 36:191.
8.Bruce G. Trigger, Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660 (Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University, 1987), 789; JR, 35:211; JR, 36:119, 123, 133–37, 143, 165 (“coming,” 143; “would be,” 165).
9.JR, 37:111.
10. JR, 40:157 (“At last,” “the Iroquois,” “this change”).
11. Robert Michael Morrissey, Empire by Collaboration: Indians, Colonists, and Governments in Colonial Illinois Country (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 31–32; Trigger, Children of Aataentsic, 795–96; Daniel K. Richter, “Iroquois versus Iroquois: Jesuit Missions and Christianity in Village Politics, 1642–1686,” Ethnohistory 32 (Winter 1985): 3; JR, 41:55–57 (“to separate,” 55; “in as great,” 57).
12. JR, 44:205 (“the Iroquois”); HAC, 86 (“were not able”); Allan Greer, Property and Dispossession: Natives, Empires and Land in Early Modern North America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 368–71; James Pritchard, In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670–1730 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 153–54; Alan Taylor, American Colonies (New York: Viking, 2001), 113; Claiborne A. Skinner, The Upper Country: French Enterprise in the Colonial Great Lakes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 15–16.
13. Gilles Havard and Cécile Vidal, Histoire de l’Amérique Française (Paris: Flammarion, 2005), 413–35; JR, 49:141–43 (“Savages,” 141; “the Iroquois,” 143).
14. OL, 99–104.
15. Richard Aquila, The Iroquois Restoration: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Colonial Frontier, 1701–1754 (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1983), 40–41; EW, 128–32; HAC, plate 37.
16. JR, 54:275, 281 (“It is a stroke,” 275); JR, 55:35 (“little Church,” “admirable”); David L. Preston, The Texture of Context: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 27–29; Greer, Property and Dispossession, 182.
17. OL, 134–37; EW, 148–49; Eric Hinderaker, The Two Hendriks: Unraveling a Mohawk Mystery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 32–33; HAC, 87.
18. EW, 149–50.
19. Lawrence H. Leder, ed., The Livingston Indian Records, 1666–1723 (Gettysburg, PA, 1956), 45–46, 51 (“We are one,” 45–46; “our Castles,” 51); Five Nations, Propositions Made by the Five Nations of Indians to His Excellency Richard Earl of Bellomont (New York, 1698), 4 (“unto the utmost”).
20. Louis Hennepin, A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903), 1:47–48 (“Village,” 47; “lying,” “Indian Corn,” 48).
21. HAC, 86–87; Carolyn Podruchny, Making the Voyager World: Travelers and Traders in the North American Fur Trade (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 21–25. For a comprehensive work on coureurs de bois, see Gilles Havard, Histoire des coureurs de bois: Amerique du Nord, 1600–1840 (Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2016).
22. JR, 62:155–57, 223 (“After they have,” 155; “undertaking,” 155–57; “obtained,” 157; “The terror,” 223); M. l’abbé De Belmont, Histoire Du Canada (1840), 12–17 (“than putting” [que de mettre Onontio á la Chaudière], 14). For a broader context, see J. F. Lee, Masters of the Middle Waters: Indian Nations and Colonial Ambitions along the Mississippi (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).
23. EW, 169; M. de la Barre to M. de Seignelay, November 4, 1683, in NYCD, 9:201–10 (“the bravest,” 201; “They will not,” 202; “Advanced,” 210).
24. Isaac Joslin Cox, ed., The Journeys of Réné Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle (New York: Allerton, 1922), 1:12 (“they would not”); EW, 159–61 (“Christian Indians,” “flesh and blood,” 161); William Hand Browne, ed., Archives of Maryland (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1896), 15:176 (“scour the heads”).
25. For a detailed analysis of these dynamics, see OL, 105–61.
26. Louis Hennepin, Description of Louisiana (New York: John G. Shea, 1880), 267; EW, 162–64, 286.
27. For the Iroquois playoff policy, see Daniel K. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 164. Lefevre de La Barre to the King, November 4, 1683, in Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l’ouest et dans le sud de l’Amérique septentrionale (1614–1754): Mémoires et documents originaux, pt. 5, Première formation d’une chaine de postes entre le Fleuve Saint-Laurent et le Golfe du Mexique (1683–1724), ed. Pierre Margry (Paris: D. Jouaust, 1883), 7 (“the sole” [lá seuls maistres du commerce]); JR, 62:223 (“completely ruined”).
28. EW, 140–45; JR, 62:175 (“reputation,” “Journeys”); “Letter of Father Claude Chauchetiere, respecting the Iroquois Mission of Sault St. François Xavier, near Montreal,” October 14, 1682, in JR, 62:165–89. I have relied on Greer, Mohawk Saint, here.
29. Nancy Shoemaker, “Kateri Tekakwitha’s Tortuous Path to Sainthood,” in Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women, ed. Shoemaker (New York: Routledge, 1995), 61–62.
30. JR, 62:163 (“lack of any,” “They are now”); EW, 128, 146.
CHAPTER 10: THE POWER OF WEAKNESS
