On Freedom, page 39
burdens on everyone else: Thomas Piketty, Emmanuel Saez, and Gabriel Zucman, “Distributional National Accounts: Methods and Estimates for the United States,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 133, no. 2 (May 2018): 553–609.
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Canadians on average lived: These figures will vary from year to year. See end-of-year 2021 data compared in Shameek Rakshit et al., “How Does U.S. Life Expectancy Compare to Other Countries?,” KFF Health Tracker, October 10, 2023.
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postcolonial tax havens: For estimates of the scale, see Deborah Hardoon, Sophia Ayele, and Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva, An Economy for the 1%, Oxfam, January 18, 2016; James Henry in “Interview: World’s Super-Rich Hide $21 Trillion Offshore,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, July 28, 2012.
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millions of Americans: The growing literature on the origins and form of the American carceral system includes Regina Kunzel, Criminal Intimacy: Prison and the Uneven History of Modern American Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008); Caleb Smith, The Prison in the American Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011).
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were disproportionately Black: By 2010, 450 of 100,000 white Americans were imprisoned, compared to 2,306 of 100,000 Black Americans. See Leah Sakala, “Breaking Down Mass Incarceration in the 2010 Census,” Prison Policy Initiative, May 28, 2014; or “U.S. Incarceration Rates by Race and Ethnicity, 2010” (graph), at: https://www.prisonpolicy.org/graphs/raceinc.html. Then see Thomas P. Bonczar, “Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population, 1974–2001,” U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report no. NCJ197976, August 2003.
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known as prison gerrymandering: Jason P. Kelly, “The Strategic Use of Prisons in Partisan Gerrymandering,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 3, no. 1 (2012): 117–34; Michael Skocpol, “The Emerging Constitutional Law of Prison Gerrymandering.” Stanford Law Review 69, no. 5 (2017): 1473–539.
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state of Ohio: Taylor Schneider, “Unveiling the Distorted Democracy: The Troubling Reality of Prison Gerrymandering,” ACLU Ohio, September 18, 2023.
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“little zone”…“big zone”: This formulation can be found throughout the Gulag memoir literature, including Myroslav Marynovych, The Universe Behind Barbed Wire: Memoirs of a Ukrainian Soviet Dissident, trans. Zoya Hayuk (Rochester, N.Y.: Rochester University Press, 2021). See also Nanci Adler, “Life in the ‘Big Zone’: The Fate of Returnees in the Aftermath of Stalinist Repression,” Europe-Asia Studies 51, no. 1 (1999): 5–19.
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earn a degree: All but one of the students who were awarded a degree at the prison’s first graduation ceremony on June 9, 2023, had taken my class. Video from Fox 61 here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cw-OoV0aZ1g; collection of news coverage here: https://www.yaleprisoneducationinitiative.org/single-post/celebrating-our-first-graduates.
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worked against the welfare state: See Robert C. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
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white politicians had designed: For the history of race and the New Deal, see Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2013), and Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Norton, 2005).
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mutated into new forms: Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, Race for Profit: How Banks and the Real Estate Industry Undermined Black Homeownership (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019); Kevin F. Gotham, “Racialization and the State: The Housing Act of 1934 and the Creation of the Federal Housing Administration,” Sociological Perspectives 32, no. 2 (2000): 291–317.
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the Wagner Act excluded: See Eileen Boris and Jennifer Klein, Caring for America: Home Health Workers in the Shadow of the Welfare State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); and Jennifer Klein, For All These Rights: Business, Labor, and the Shaping of America’s Public-Private Welfare State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003).
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Unions did become: Andrew W. Martin and Marc Dixon, “Changing to Win? Threat, Resistance, and the Role of Unions in Strikes, 1984–2002,” American Journal of Sociology 116, no. 1 (2010): 93–129.
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In a sad symphony: See Mark Peffley, Jon Hurwitz, and Paul M. Sniderman, “Racial Stereotypes and Whites’ Political Views of Blacks in the Context of Welfare and Crime,” American Journal of Political Science 41, no. 1 (1997): 30–60.
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The American idea that we must choose: Consider the research summarized by Paul Butler: “If white people are informed that a policy has an adverse impact on blacks, it actually increases their support for it.” Chokehold: Policing Black Men (New York: New Press, 2017), 71.
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The image of work-shy: A crucial text here was Frederick L. Hoffman, The Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York: Macmillan, 1896).
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Seduced by a sense of ethnic honor: Khalil Gibran Muhammad extends this story across the century, emphasizing that the patterns I describe in the 1980s have a longer tradition. The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2019), chap. 2, esp. 41, 47, 51, 76, 85. See also Matthew Ward, “The Legacy of Slavery and Contemporary Racial Disparities in Arrest Rates,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 8, no. 4 (2022): 534–52.
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someone else, someone Black: See the judgments of and statistics provided by a former prosecutor in Butler, Chokehold, 63 and passim.
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In 1968 Richard Nixon: Elizabeth Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2016).
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a stereotype that white kids: This generational experience stands behind Jason Stanley’s How Propaganda Works (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015).
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“It is as if, sometime around 1980”: Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 86.
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Told that the system was working: Two books by Jacob Hacker and Paul Pierson address related issues: see Let Them Eat Tweets (New York: Norton, 2020) and Winner-Take-All Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010).
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suicide and addiction: Anne Case and Angus Deaton, “Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife Among White Non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st Century,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 49 (November 2, 2015); Debbie Weingarten, “Why Are America’s Farmers Killing Themselves in Record Numbers?,” Guardian, December 6, 2017; Sam Quinones, Dreamland: The True Tale of America’s Opiate Epidemic (London: Bloomsbury Press, 2016); Nora A. Volkow and A. Thomas McLellan, “Opioid Abuse in Chronic Pain: Misconceptions and Mitigation Strategies,” New England Journal of Medicine 374 (March 31, 2016).
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not simply personal tragedy: J. H. Wasfy, Charles Stewart III, and Vijeta Bhambhani, “County Community Health Associations of Net Voting Shift in the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election,” PLOS One 12, no. 10 (2017); Shannon M. Monnat, “Deaths of Despair and Support for Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election,” Pennsylvania State University, Research Brief, December 4, 2016; John Lynch et al., “Is Inequality a Determinant of Population Health?,” Milbank Quarterly 82, no. 1 (2004): 62, 81.
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ESPN’s best commentator: Kirk Herbstreit’s on-air commentary on race, after the murder of George Floyd: “The Black community is hurting. If you’ve listened, you’ve heard the words ‘empathy’ and ‘compassion’ over the last few months. How do you listen to these stories and not feel pain and not want to help? You know what I mean? It’s like…wearing a hoodie and putting your hands at 10-2…Oh God, I better look out. I’m wearing Nike gear, like what? What are we talking about? You can’t relate to that if you’re white, but you can listen and you can try to help because this is not okay. It’s just not. We gotta do better, man. We gotta, like, lock arm-in-arm and be together.” I was proud and impressed. And I also thought: We get to cry in public and it makes us good people, but it’s not so simple for our Black colleagues.
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No matter what he wore: As Susanna Siegel argues, how we see is influenced by prior rationalizations. The Rationality of Perception (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 22 and passim.
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the way Fanon described: “The black man’s first action is a reaction.” Fanon, White Skin, Black Masks, 19.
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murdered the Jews of Odesa: Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, trans. Yaffah Murciano (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011).
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murdered the Jews of Kherson and Dnipro: See Dieter Pohl, “Schauplatz Ukraine: Der Massenmord an den Juden im Militärverwaltungsgebiet und im Reichskommissariat 1941–1943,” in Norbert Frei, Sybille Steinbacher, and Bernd C. Wagner, eds., Ausbeutung, Vernichtung, Öffentlichkeit (Munich: K.G. Saur, 2000), 135–79; Dieter Pohl, “Ukrainische Hilfskräfte beim Mord an den Juden,” in Gerhard Paul, ed., Die Täter der Shoah (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2002); see also Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord: Die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941–1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
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his father’s grotesque predicament: This and other details from Georgi Arbatov, The System: An Insider’s Life in Soviet Politics (New York: Crown, 1992).
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The Great Terror of 1937–38: On the Soviet mass murder policies of 1937–38, see Rolf Binner and Marc Junge, “Wie der Terror ‘Gross’ wurde,” Cahiers du monde russe 42, nos. 2–4 (2001): 557–614; Nicolas Werth, La terreur et le désarroi (Paris: Perrin, 2007); Paul R. Gregory, Terror by Quota (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Terry Martin, “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing,” Journal of Modern History 70, no. 4 (1998): 813–61; N. V. Petrov and A. B. Roginsksii, “ ‘Pol’skaia operatsiia’ NKVD 1937–1938 gg.,” in A. Ie. Gurianov, ed., Repressii protiv poliakov i pol’skikh grazhdan (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1997), 22–43. I try to synthesize in Bloodlands, chaps. 2 and 3.
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Stalin’s alliance with Hitler: See Roger Moorhouse, The Devils’ Alliance: Hitler’s Pact with Stalin, 1939–1941 (London: Bodley Head, 2014); Gerd Koenen, Der Russland-Komplex (Munich: Beck, 2005); Sławomir Dębski. Między Berlinem a Moskwą (Warsaw: PISM, 2003); John Lukacs, The Last European War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001). I try to synthesize in Bloodlands, chap. 4.
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to make careers: Jan Tomasz Gross, Revolution from Abroad (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
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murdered Soviet Jews: A chain of important sources: Yitzhak Arad, Shmuel Krakowski, and Shmuel Spector, eds., The Einsatzgruppen Reports (New York: Holocaust Library, 1989); Joshua Rubenstein and Ilya Altman, eds., The Unknown Black Book (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008); Yitzhak Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009); Yuri Radchenko, “Accomplices to Extermination: Municipal Government and the Holocaust in Kharkiv,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 27, no. 3 (2013): 443–63; Leonid Rein, “Local Collaboration in the Execution of the ‘Final Solution’ in Nazi-Occupied Belorussia,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 20, no. 3 (2006): 381–409. I treat the “Holocaust by bullets” in the occupied Soviet Union in detail in Black Earth.
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Soviet leaders kept dying on him: See Peter Baker, “How Reagan and Bush Overcame Skepticism to Collaborate with Gorbachev,” NYT, September 1, 2022.
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led by Boris Yeltsin: For an excellent biography, see Timothy J. Colton, Yeltsin: A Life (New York: Basic Books, 2008).
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reactionaries tried to remove him: On Gorbachev’s difficulties, see Chris Miller, The Struggle to Save the Soviet Economy: Mikhail Gorbachev and the Collapse of the USSR (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016). The locus classicus on the national question is Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001). On the relationship between 1989 and 1991, see Mark Kramer, “The Collapse of East European Communism and the Repercussions Within the Soviet Union,” Journal of Cold War Studies 5, no. 4 (2003); 6, no. 4 (2004); 7, no. 1 (2005).
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After Poland joined the European Union: Jarosław Kundera, “Poland in the European Union. The Economic Effects of Ten Years of Membership,” Rivista di studi politici internazionali 81, no. 3 (2014): 377–96.
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a trick that might be called sadopopulism: I discuss sadopopulism at greater length in Road to Unfreedom, chap. 6.
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offering relative degrees of pain: See comparable arguments in Fintan O’Toole, The Politics of Pain: Postwar England and the Rise of Nationalism (New York: Liveright, 2019).
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Sadopopulism normalizes oligarchy: The oligarchical appeal of sadopopulism, at least in some cases, can be traced to a reading of René Girard, The Scapegoat, trans. Yvonne Frecerro (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1989), esp. chap. 3.
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three time warps: I have developed these ideas of inevitability, eternity, and catastrophe in my books and lectures since November 2016 and the publication of On Tyranny, but the notion of time warps is not mine. See Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, After 1945: Latency as Origin of the Present (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013); Chapoutot, “L’historicité nazie.”
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supposedly brings the world as it should be: Nathan J. Kelly and Peter K. Enns, “Inequality and the Dynamics of Public Opinion,” American Journal of Political Science 54, no. 4 (2010): 855–70.
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Facts about the present: On inequality globally, see Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
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The American prison population: See reports by the Sentencing Project, or this graph: www.sentencingproject.org/research/.
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labor unions were besieged: On the relationship between deunionization and inequality, see Bruce Western and Jake Rosenfeld, “Unions, Norms, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality,” American Sociological Review 76, no. 4 (2011): 513–37. The conclusion here is that deunionization accounts for between one-fifth and one-third of the increase in inequality. On wages, see Paul Mason, PostCapitalism (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2015).
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about a fifty-fifty chance: Raj Chetty et al., “The Fading American Dream: Trends in Absolute Income Mobility Since 1940,” Science 356 (April 24, 2017): 398–406.
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fraction of the population: Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman, “Wealth Inequality in the United States Since 1913: Evidence from Capitalized Income Tax Data,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper no. 20265 (October 2014), 1, 23; Piketty, Saez, and Zucman, “Distributional Accounts,” 1, 17, 19.
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nor even 1 of 1,000: If we stay with 1 of 1,000, we find that this group controls four times as much wealth as 50 percent of the U.S. population. See “Distribution of Household Wealth in the U.S. since 1989,” updated regularly by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
