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131. Terrance de Vries, Ishan Misra, Changhan Wang, and Laurens van der Maaten, “Does Object Recognition Work for Everyone?” Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, 2019, 52–59.
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133. Tulsee Doshi, “Introducing the Inclusive Images Competition,” Google AI Blog, September 6, 2018, https://ai.googleblog.com/2018/09/introducing-inclusive-images-competition.html.
134. Samantha Cole, Emanuel Maiberg, and Anna Koslerova, “‘Frankenstein’s Monster’: Images of Sexual Abuse Are Fueling Algorithmic Porn,” Motherboard, November 10, 2020, accessed January 30, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/akdgnp/sexual-abuse-fueling-ai-porn-deepfake-czech-casting-girls-do-porn.
135. “Closet Queen,” ImageNet, accessed June 15, 2018, http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?o2=&o0=1&o8=1&o1=1&o7=&o5=&o9=&o6=&o3=&o4=&r=1&s=closet+queen&i=1&h=110#c.
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141. See Dean Spade, Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics, and the Limits of Law (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015).
142. John Cheney-Lippold, We Are Data: Algorithms and the Making of Our Digital Selves (New York: NYU Press, 2017), 220–221.
143. See, for instance, Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet; Sarah T. Roberts, Behind the Screen: Content Moderation in the Shadows of Social Media (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).
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148. Adrian Chen, “Inside Facebook’s Outsourced Anti-Porn and Gore Brigade, Where ‘Camel Toes’ Are More Offensive than ‘Crushed Heads,’” Gawker, February 16, 2012, accessed February 14, 2019, https://gawker.com/5885714/inside-facebooks-outsourced-anti-porn-and-gore-brigade-where-camel-toes-are-more-offensive-than-crushed-heads.
149. Nick Hopkins, “Facebook Moderators: A Quick Guide to Their Job and Its Challenges,” Guardian, May 21, 2017, accessed February 13, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/may/21/facebook-moderators-quick-guide-job-challenges.
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151. Hopkins, “Facebook Moderators.”
152. Fisher, “Inside Facebook’s Secret Rulebook.”
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154. Fisher, “Inside Facebook’s Secret Rulebook.”
155. Tarleton Gillespie, “Facebook Can’t Moderate in Secret Anymore,” Culture Digitally, May 23, 2017, accessed February 13, 2019, http://culturedigitally.org/2017/05/facebook-cant-moderate-in-secret-any-more.
156. Hopkins, “Facebook Moderators.”
157. Koebler and Cox, “The Impossible Job.”
158. Fisher, “Inside Facebook’s Secret Rulebook.”
159. Adrian Chen, “Facebook Apologizes for Censoring Gay Kiss Picture,” Gawker, April 19, 2011, accessed February 14, 2019, https://gawker.com/5793536/facebook-apologizes-for-censoring-gay-kiss-picture.
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171. Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet, 148.
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176. Demone, “Do I Have Boobs Now?”
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Chapter 3
1. Philip Elmer-Dewitt, “On a Screen Near You: Cyberporn,” Time, August 3, 1995, 146, no. 1, accessed October 15, 2019, http://fortune.com/2015/07/01/cyberporn-time-marty-rimm.
2. Philip Elmer-Dewitt, “Finding Marty Rimm,” Fortune, July 1, 2015, accessed October 15, 2018, http://fortune.com/2015/07/01/cyberporn-time-marty-rimm.
3. On earlier moral panics, see Whitney Strub, Obscenity Rules: Roth v. United States and the Long Struggle over Sexual Expression (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2013).
4. Henry Jenkins, “Empowering Children in the Digital Age: Towards a Radical Media Pedagogy,” Radical Teacher 50 (1997): 30–35, 31.
5. “Censorship in a Box: Why Blocking Software Is Wrong for Public Libraries,” ACLU, June 17, 1998, accessed October 15, 2018, https://www.aclu.org/news/new-aclu-report-condemns-mandatory-blocking-software-public-libraries; “Libraries, the Internet, and the Law: Adults Must Have Unfiltered Access,” ACLU, January 11, 2010, accessed October 15, 2018, https://www.aclu-wa.org/news/libraries-internet-and-law-adults-must-have-unfiltered-access; Ann Beeson, Chris Hansen and Barry Steinhardt, “Farenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning?” ACLU, August 1997, accessed October 15, 2018, https://www.aclu.org/other/fahrenheit-4512-cyberspace-burning?redirect=cpredirect/15145.
6. Victoria Rideout, Caroline Richardson, and Paul Resnick, “See No Evil: How Internet Filters Affect the Search for Online Health Information,” Kaiser Family Foundation Study, December 2002, accessed October 15, 2018, https://www.kff.org/other/report/see-no-evil-how-internet-filters-affect.
7. See Strub, Obscenity Rules.
8. Linda Greenhouse, “The Supreme Court: Internet Access; Court Upholds Law to Make Libraries Use Internet Filters,” New York Times, June 24, 2003, accessed October 15, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/24/us/supreme-court-internet-access-court-upholds-law-make-libraries-use-internet.html.
9. Deborah Caldwell-Stone, “Filtering and the First Amendment: When Is It Okay to Block Speech Online?” American Libraries, April 2, 2013, accessed October 15, 2018, https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2013/04/02/filtering-and-the-first-amendment.
10. NCOSE, “EBSCO Information Services: A Major Contributor to Sexual Exploitation,” National Center on Sexual Exploitation, accessed February 16, 2019, https://endsexualexploitation.org/ebsco.
11. NCOSE, “EBSCO Information Services.”
12. Jackie Zubrzycki, “Do Online Databases Filter Out Enough Material?” Education Week, July 14, 2017, accessed February 17, 2019, http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2017/07/EBSCO_online_databases_filter_inappropriate_material.html.
13. NCOSE, “Colorado School District Discontinues Contract with EBSCO for Providing Sexually Explicit Material in K–12 School Databases,” National Center on Sexual Exploitation, https://endsexualexploitation.org/articles/colorado-school-district-discontinues-contract-with-ebsco-for-providing-sexually-explicit-material-in-k-12-school-databases.
14. NCOSE, “Starbucks Will Begin Filtering Pornography from WiFi,” National Center on Sexual Exploitation, January 15, 2019, accessed June 19, 2021, https://endsexualexploitation.org/articles/starbucks-wifi; NCOSE, “Porn Free WiFi Campaign Targets McDonald’s and Starbucks,” National Center on Sexual Exploitation, March 17, 2015, accessed June 19, 2021, https://endsexualexploitation.org/articles/porn-free-wifi-campaign-targets-mcdonalds-and-starbucks.
15. Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net: 2016,” Freedom House, accessed June 25, 2019, 9, https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTN_2016_BOOKLET_FINAL.pdf.
16. Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net,” 9.
17. Lukasz Szulc, “Banal Nationalism and Queers Online: Enforcing and Resisting Cultural Meanings of .tr,” New Media & Society 17, no. 9 (2015): 1530–1546.
18. Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net: 2017,” Freedom House, accessed June 25, 2019, 7 https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTN_2017_Final.pdf.
19. Andrew K. Pryzkylski and Victoria Nash, “Internet Filtering and Adolescent Exposure to Online Sexual Material,” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 21, no. 7 (2018): 405–410, 405.
20. Benjamin Edelman, “Empirical Analysis of Google SafeSearch,” Berkman Center for Internet and Society, 2003, accessed June 27, 2018, https://cyber.harvard.edu/archived_content/people/edelman/google-safesearch.
21. It would be greatly beneficial if there were more comprehensive and longer duration data collection procedures put in place to better keep track of what is getting blocked, when, why, and for how long. More ethnographic data cataloguing web admins’ and content creators’ responses to censorship and their navigation of the adjudication process would be a great supplement to this larger database. Without these things in place, it is very difficult to provide a rigorous accounting of the negative effects of content moderation practices online.
22. Aimee Dawson, “Facebook Censors 30,000 Year-Old Venus of Willendorf as ‘Pornographic,’” Art Newspaper, February 27, 2018, accessed June 27, 2018, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/facebook-censors-famous-30-000-year-old-nude-statue-as-pornographic.
23. Victoria Stapley-Brown, “Paris Court Hears Arguments in Facebook Censorship Case Centering on Courbet’s Origin of the World,” Art Newspaper, February 2, 2018, accessed June 27, 2018, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/paris-court-hears-arguments-in-facebook-censorship-case-centering-on-courbet-s-origin-of-the-world.
