Violent Saviors, page 41
71. Bergès, Sophie de Grouchy, 269.
72. Bergès, Sophie de Grouchy, 267, 270, 278–281.
73. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, Location 487.
74. McLean and Hewitt, Condorcet, xl–xlii.
75. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, 147.
76. Karl Marx, “Theses on Feuerbach.”
Chapter 3: The Demand for Dignity
1. I especially noticed the modern identification of a demand for dignity when I discovered the work of Wein, “A Research Agenda”; my discovery of Kant’s writings on dignity is thanks mainly to the marvelous work by Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, whose exposition I set out in this chapter.
2. United Nations, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.”
3. For the two separate passions, see Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 251–252, 275–276, 278; for “what chiefly enrages us,” see Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 112–113.
4. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, Location 206.
5. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 417–418; Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 198.
6. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 557; Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 129–130.
7. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 40–41.
8. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 33–34.
9. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 35–42.
10. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 42.
11. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 46–47; Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 139.
12. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 47–48.
13. Quoted in Wood, general introduction, Location 253.
14. Kant, Political Writings, 133.
15. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 393–394.
16. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 157.
17. Quoted in Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 184; original at Kant, Anthropology, History, and Education, 59.
18. Kant, Anthropology, History, and Education, 50.
19. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 184.
20. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 196; Kant, Practical Philosophy, 328–331.
21. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 489–490.
PART II: LIBERALS DOUBT EMPIRE, 1776–1865
Clarkson, History.
Chapter 4: Smith and Allies Challenge the Slave Trade
This chapter draws extensively on the following secondary sources: Hochschild, Bury the Chains; Drescher, Mighty Experiment; Carretta, Thoughts and Sentiments; Carretta, Unchained Voices; Peart and Levy, Street Porter and the Philosopher.
1. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, sum of embarked slaves by flag, broad regions of disembarkation; number of embarked slaves by flag, specific regions disembarkation.
2. Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 1.
3. Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 35, 147.
4. Burnard, Jamaica in the Age of Revolution, 119; Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 159, 183; Burnard, Jamaica, 31.
5. The time of lecture is suggested by the editors on page 19 of Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence; Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, Wednesday, February 16, 1763, 183–184.
6. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, Tuesday, February 15, 1763, 181.
7. Ross, The Life of Adam Smith, 28; Phillipson, Adam Smith, 122.
8. Ross, Life of Adam Smith, 121–122.
9. Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Location 6201.
10. Adam Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 172.
11. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, Friday, January 21, 1763, 128–129.
12. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 146.
13. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 143–144.
14. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 178–179.
15. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 146.
16. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 1531–1537.
17. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 1905–1910.
18. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 288.
19. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 211–212.
20. Rothschild, “Atlantic Worlds of David Hume”; Lee, Essay in Vindication.
21. Drescher, Mighty Experiment, 12; Postlethwayt, National and Private Advantages, 4–5; Postlethwayt’s biography is available at www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/postlethwayt.htm.
22. Burnard, Jamaica, 70–71; Long, History of Jamaica, 271, 399–400, 502.
23. See Fogel and Engerman, Time on the Cross.
24. Drescher, Mighty Experiment, 31; Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 15199–15207.
25. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 15199–15207.
26. Warburton, Sermons, 138.
27. The narrative in the remainder of this chapter closely follows that in Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 87 and following. See also Carretta introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 185; Clarkson, History, Location 2258; for Clarkson rejoinder, see Clarkson, Essay, 141.
28. Clarkson, History, vol. 1, Locations 2606–2610, 2653–2655.
29. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2017.
30. This paragraph summarizes points made by Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2017; image is at https://oll.libertyfund.org/page/images-of-the-british-abolitionist-movement.
31. Equiano, Interesting Narrative; for the success of the book, see Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Locations 2042, 3822, 2508, 2565.
32. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 2493.
33. Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 318.
34. For Clarkson’s letter, see Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2493; for subscriber list, see Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 318; Clarkson, History.
35. Carretta, Unchained Voices, 10.
36. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2042; on Cugoano’s quotations of Clarkson, see Carretta’s editor introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 255, and Clarkson citations in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 168–169; for subscribers’ names, see Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 147; for the printer and lack of support, see Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 153.
37. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Locations 69–84; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 8.
38. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 12.
39. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Locations 72–168; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2047; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 8.
40. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 22–23.
41. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 362; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 17.
42. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 362; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 17, 15.
43. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 98, 100.
44. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 141.
45. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Locations 270 and 24; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2061.
46. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2435.
47. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2898; Clarkson, History, vol. 2, Location 1934.
48. Clarkson, History, vol. 2, Locations 2154–2159.
49. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 4675.
50. Clarkson, History, vol. 2, Locations 4597–4602.
51. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, 56; Masson and Jameson, “Odyssey of Thomas Muir.”
52. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, 57–58.
53. Ross, Life of Adam Smith, 434–436.
54. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, 58–59.
55. Thanks to David Levy for suggesting this genealogy of influence from Smith.
Chapter 5: The West Invents the Rest
The Eastern European part of this chapter exposits the work of Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe. The Sierra Leone part draws heavily on Braidwood, Black Poor and White Philanthropists. Other important secondary sources were Røge, Economistes; Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet”; Fryer, Staying Power; Drescher, Mighty Experiment; Comin et al., “Wealth of Nations in 1000 BC.”
1. Comin et al., “Wealth of Nations in 1000 BC.”
2. Since revised and updated: Maddison Project Database, regional data.
3. Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet,” 83.
4. Røge, Economistes, 99.
5. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, 127–128.
6. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, editors’ introduction, xxvii.
7. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, 153.
8. For Du Pont on India, see Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet,” 77; for Du Pont on Mauritius, see Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 271; for Du Pont on the US, see Bashford and Chaplin, New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus, 255–256.
9. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 269–271.
10. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 222–223, 266–267.
11. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 19, 22.
12. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 11, 285–290, 310–315, 360; Rubinson, “Herodotus and the Scythians.”
13. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 343–350; Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 3–4.
14. Tomkins, Clapham Sect, 21–23.
15. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 4–5.
16. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 343–354; Watrous, Ledyard, John Ledyard’s Journey, 6–12.
17. This section and following exposits the Ledyard narrative and quotations of Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 343–354, while taking and expanding the original quotes from Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 124.
18. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 144, 195, 180.
19. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 127, 145.
20. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 194.
21. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 346; Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 156–157.
22. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 204, 229.
23. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 45.
24. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 223, 211.
25. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 252–253, 30–31.
26. Røge, Economistes, 185, 226–227. The evidence for the 1774 memo is based on later recollections, and no such memo has been found in the archives.
27. Braidwood, Black Poor, 2–6, chap. 2.
28. Braidwood, Black Poor, 10, chap. 2, and footnote 76.
29. Braidwood, Black Poor, 6–10, chap. 2; Sharp, Memoirs, 266.
30. Sharp, Short Sketch, Locations 784–792.
31. Braidwood, Black Poor, 7, 9–10, chap. 2.
32. For the committee’s response, see Fryer, Staying Power, 199–200; for the House of Commons, see Braidwood, Black Poor, 14, chap. 2.
33. Carretta, editor’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 72; Braidwood, Black Poor, 30, chap. 2; Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 299, Location 6248; Braidwood, Black Poor, 13–14, chap. 4; seventy of the whites were wives of Black settlers.
34. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 104–106; Braidwood, Black Poor, 19, chap. 3.
35. Braidwood, Black Poor, 16, chap. 3.
36. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 362, 104–106.
37. Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 228; Location 4455; 327. Braidwood notes that there were conflicting reports in the newspapers on whether there was settler discontent.
38. Braidwood, Black Poor, 16, chap. 3.
39. Braidwood, Black Poor, 3, chap. 5.
40. Braidwood, Black Poor, 5, chap. 5.
41. Braidwood, Black Poor, 12–14, chap 5.
42. Braidwood, Black Poor, 17, chap. 5.
43. Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery, “Gilbert Francklyn”; Braidwood, Black Poor, 11, chap. 6, and Francklyn, Observations, xii-xiii.
44. Braidwood, Black Poor, 11, chap. 6.
45. Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 1, 50.
46. Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 2, 133.
47. Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 2, 15.
48. For Napoleon and the officer’s views on Russia, see Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 1, 50, vol. 2, 153; for Ségur’s, see vol. 2, 15, 370–371.
49. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 363; Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 2, 42.
50. Figes, The Crimean War, 9, 225; I follow Wolff on looking at both Ségur’s and Tolstoy’s versions.
51. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 373; Tolstoy, War and Peace, Locations 14512, 20614.
52. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 374; Tolstoy, War and Peace, Locations 27573, 27703, 27997.
Chapter 6: Benjamin Constant Critiques Conquest
This chapter draws heavily on and partly exposits the section “Constant and the Distrust of Empire” in Pitts, A Turn to Empire. It also draws heavily on Fontana, introduction, and on Rothschild, Economic Sentiments.
1. Fontana, introduction, Locations 409–414.
2. Fontana, introduction, Locations 96–98, 104–106, 208–212.
3. Pitts, Turn to Empire, 176–177; Constant, Political Writings, Locations 4536–4541.
4. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 840–844; Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 176.
5. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 173–174; Constant, Political Writings, Locations 754–757, 781–783.
6. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 180.
7. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 317.
8. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 239.
9. Mill, review of Missionaire; Mill, review of four books; for joining the East India Company, see Ball and Loizides, “James Mill.”
10. Quoted by Winch, Classical Political Economy, 163; original in Mill, review of four books, 154.
11. Partially quoted by Winch, Classical Political Economy, 164; James Mill, Testimony.
12. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3690–3691.
13. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3714–3720.
14. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3720–3725, 3741–3745.
15. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3720–3725, 3745–3746.
16. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3750–3777.
17. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3946–3950.
18. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 173.
19. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 179.
20. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 182–183.
21. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 206.
22. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 221–222, 224; also see Pitts, “Republicanism,” 284.
23. Pitts, “Republicanism,” 275–276.
24. Washington’s Farewell Address.
25. For Adams, see US Department of State, Adams biography; Adams, Diary, vol. 28, September 24, September 29–30, October 27, 1812; Woods, John Quincy Adams, 290 and following. For Adams and Constant, see Adams, Diary, vol. 29, February 15, 1815; May 4, 1815; February 18, 1816.
26. Adams, An Address, 22–23. For a discussion of the quote as applied to modern policy debates, see Coyne, In Search of Monsters. In 2019, a think tank named the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft was established in Washington, DC, to advocate for the principles John Quincy Adams outlined in this speech.
27. Adams, An Address, 31–32.
28. Adams, An Address, 29.
29. Guyatt, “Adams Doctrine”; Adams, An Address, 12.
30. Adams to Everett partially quoted in Murphy, Hemispheric Imaginings, 53–54; for other quotes, see Adams, Writings, 200–201, 206.
31. Guyatt, “Adams Doctrine”; Murphy, Hemispheric Imaginings, 69–70; Adams, An Address, 8, 12.
Chapter 7: The Civilizing Plan for the Creek Indians
This chapter draws heavily on Calloway, Indian World of George Washington; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians; Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction; Wright, Creeks and Seminoles; Green, The Politics of Indian Removal; Ethridge, Creek Country; Saunt, A New Order of Things and Unworthy Republic; Haveman, Rivers of Sand; Bashford and Chaplin, New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus.
1. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 142.
2. For Hawkins, see Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 2347–2353; for the Plan of Civilization, see Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson,” July 11, 1803.
3. Bashford and Chaplin, New Worlds of Malthus, 234–235.
4. Locke, Two Treatises of Government, 81–83.
5. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 325; Vattel, Law of Nations, Locations 4509, 3027.
6. Kiernan, Lords of Human Kind, 20; Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels, 181, 197.
7. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 3790–3796, 2492–2496; Williams, “William Tatham, Wataugan.”
8. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Location 2057; Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 331; Founders Online, “Henry Knox to George Washington.”
9. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 340; Washington, “Third Annual Message to Congress.”
10. For the treaty, see Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 469; Kappler, “Treaty with the Creeks.” For Washington to Lafayette, see Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 371; Founders Online, “George Washington to Lafayette, August 11, 1790.”
11. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 459; Fitzpatrick, “Speech to Indian Chiefs,” 300.
12. Washington, “Talk to the Cherokee Nation”; Fitzpatrick, “Talk to the Cherokee Nation,” 193.
13. Pound, Benjamin Hawkins, 4. Hawkins was born in North Carolina on August 15, 1754. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 468; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 2347–2353.
14. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 1832–1833, 2020–2025; Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, June 14, 1786.”
15. Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, January 23, 1800”; Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 475; Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, July 12, 1800.”
16. Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, March 1, 1801.”
17. Hawkins, “A Sketch”; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 2570–2575.
18. Jefferson, “First Annual Message to Congress, December 8, 1801.”
19. Founders Online, “Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Hawkins, February 18, 1803.”
20. Founders Online, “Hawkins to Jefferson, July 11, 1803.”
21. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 470; Ethridge, Creek Country, 15, 19.
22. Milford, A Cursory Glance, xix–xxvii, 49–51.
72. Bergès, Sophie de Grouchy, 267, 270, 278–281.
73. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, Location 487.
74. McLean and Hewitt, Condorcet, xl–xlii.
75. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, 147.
76. Karl Marx, “Theses on Feuerbach.”
Chapter 3: The Demand for Dignity
1. I especially noticed the modern identification of a demand for dignity when I discovered the work of Wein, “A Research Agenda”; my discovery of Kant’s writings on dignity is thanks mainly to the marvelous work by Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, whose exposition I set out in this chapter.
2. United Nations, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.”
3. For the two separate passions, see Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 251–252, 275–276, 278; for “what chiefly enrages us,” see Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 112–113.
4. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, Location 206.
5. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 417–418; Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 198.
6. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 557; Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 129–130.
7. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 40–41.
8. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 33–34.
9. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 35–42.
10. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 42.
11. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 46–47; Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 139.
12. Korsgaard, Kant: Groundwork, 47–48.
13. Quoted in Wood, general introduction, Location 253.
14. Kant, Political Writings, 133.
15. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 393–394.
16. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 157.
17. Quoted in Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 184; original at Kant, Anthropology, History, and Education, 59.
18. Kant, Anthropology, History, and Education, 50.
19. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 184.
20. Muthu, Enlightenment Against Empire, 196; Kant, Practical Philosophy, 328–331.
21. Kant, Practical Philosophy, 489–490.
PART II: LIBERALS DOUBT EMPIRE, 1776–1865
Clarkson, History.
Chapter 4: Smith and Allies Challenge the Slave Trade
This chapter draws extensively on the following secondary sources: Hochschild, Bury the Chains; Drescher, Mighty Experiment; Carretta, Thoughts and Sentiments; Carretta, Unchained Voices; Peart and Levy, Street Porter and the Philosopher.
1. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, sum of embarked slaves by flag, broad regions of disembarkation; number of embarked slaves by flag, specific regions disembarkation.
2. Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 1.
3. Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 35, 147.
4. Burnard, Jamaica in the Age of Revolution, 119; Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 159, 183; Burnard, Jamaica, 31.
5. The time of lecture is suggested by the editors on page 19 of Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence; Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, Wednesday, February 16, 1763, 183–184.
6. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, Tuesday, February 15, 1763, 181.
7. Ross, The Life of Adam Smith, 28; Phillipson, Adam Smith, 122.
8. Ross, Life of Adam Smith, 121–122.
9. Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Location 6201.
10. Adam Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 172.
11. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, Friday, January 21, 1763, 128–129.
12. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 146.
13. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 143–144.
14. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 178–179.
15. Meek et al., Lectures on Jurisprudence, 146.
16. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 1531–1537.
17. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 1905–1910.
18. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 288.
19. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 211–212.
20. Rothschild, “Atlantic Worlds of David Hume”; Lee, Essay in Vindication.
21. Drescher, Mighty Experiment, 12; Postlethwayt, National and Private Advantages, 4–5; Postlethwayt’s biography is available at www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/postlethwayt.htm.
22. Burnard, Jamaica, 70–71; Long, History of Jamaica, 271, 399–400, 502.
23. See Fogel and Engerman, Time on the Cross.
24. Drescher, Mighty Experiment, 31; Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 15199–15207.
25. Smith, Wealth of Nations, Locations 15199–15207.
26. Warburton, Sermons, 138.
27. The narrative in the remainder of this chapter closely follows that in Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 87 and following. See also Carretta introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 185; Clarkson, History, Location 2258; for Clarkson rejoinder, see Clarkson, Essay, 141.
28. Clarkson, History, vol. 1, Locations 2606–2610, 2653–2655.
29. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2017.
30. This paragraph summarizes points made by Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2017; image is at https://oll.libertyfund.org/page/images-of-the-british-abolitionist-movement.
31. Equiano, Interesting Narrative; for the success of the book, see Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Locations 2042, 3822, 2508, 2565.
32. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 2493.
33. Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 318.
34. For Clarkson’s letter, see Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2493; for subscriber list, see Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 318; Clarkson, History.
35. Carretta, Unchained Voices, 10.
36. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2042; on Cugoano’s quotations of Clarkson, see Carretta’s editor introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 255, and Clarkson citations in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 168–169; for subscribers’ names, see Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 147; for the printer and lack of support, see Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 153.
37. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Locations 69–84; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 8.
38. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 12.
39. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Locations 72–168; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2047; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 8.
40. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 22–23.
41. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 362; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 17.
42. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 362; Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 17, 15.
43. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 98, 100.
44. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 141.
45. Carretta’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Locations 270 and 24; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2061.
46. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2435.
47. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 2898; Clarkson, History, vol. 2, Location 1934.
48. Clarkson, History, vol. 2, Locations 2154–2159.
49. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, Location 4675.
50. Clarkson, History, vol. 2, Locations 4597–4602.
51. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, 56; Masson and Jameson, “Odyssey of Thomas Muir.”
52. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, 57–58.
53. Ross, Life of Adam Smith, 434–436.
54. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, 58–59.
55. Thanks to David Levy for suggesting this genealogy of influence from Smith.
Chapter 5: The West Invents the Rest
The Eastern European part of this chapter exposits the work of Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe. The Sierra Leone part draws heavily on Braidwood, Black Poor and White Philanthropists. Other important secondary sources were Røge, Economistes; Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet”; Fryer, Staying Power; Drescher, Mighty Experiment; Comin et al., “Wealth of Nations in 1000 BC.”
1. Comin et al., “Wealth of Nations in 1000 BC.”
2. Since revised and updated: Maddison Project Database, regional data.
3. Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet,” 83.
4. Røge, Economistes, 99.
5. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, 127–128.
6. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, editors’ introduction, xxvii.
7. Lukes and Urbinati, Condorcet, 153.
8. For Du Pont on India, see Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet,” 77; for Du Pont on Mauritius, see Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 271; for Du Pont on the US, see Bashford and Chaplin, New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus, 255–256.
9. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 269–271.
10. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 222–223, 266–267.
11. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 19, 22.
12. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 11, 285–290, 310–315, 360; Rubinson, “Herodotus and the Scythians.”
13. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 343–350; Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 3–4.
14. Tomkins, Clapham Sect, 21–23.
15. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 4–5.
16. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 343–354; Watrous, Ledyard, John Ledyard’s Journey, 6–12.
17. This section and following exposits the Ledyard narrative and quotations of Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 343–354, while taking and expanding the original quotes from Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 124.
18. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 144, 195, 180.
19. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 127, 145.
20. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 194.
21. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 346; Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 156–157.
22. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 204, 229.
23. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 45.
24. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 223, 211.
25. Watrous, John Ledyard’s Journey, 252–253, 30–31.
26. Røge, Economistes, 185, 226–227. The evidence for the 1774 memo is based on later recollections, and no such memo has been found in the archives.
27. Braidwood, Black Poor, 2–6, chap. 2.
28. Braidwood, Black Poor, 10, chap. 2, and footnote 76.
29. Braidwood, Black Poor, 6–10, chap. 2; Sharp, Memoirs, 266.
30. Sharp, Short Sketch, Locations 784–792.
31. Braidwood, Black Poor, 7, 9–10, chap. 2.
32. For the committee’s response, see Fryer, Staying Power, 199–200; for the House of Commons, see Braidwood, Black Poor, 14, chap. 2.
33. Carretta, editor’s introduction in Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, Location 72; Braidwood, Black Poor, 30, chap. 2; Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 299, Location 6248; Braidwood, Black Poor, 13–14, chap. 4; seventy of the whites were wives of Black settlers.
34. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 104–106; Braidwood, Black Poor, 19, chap. 3.
35. Braidwood, Black Poor, 16, chap. 3.
36. Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments, 362, 104–106.
37. Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 228; Location 4455; 327. Braidwood notes that there were conflicting reports in the newspapers on whether there was settler discontent.
38. Braidwood, Black Poor, 16, chap. 3.
39. Braidwood, Black Poor, 3, chap. 5.
40. Braidwood, Black Poor, 5, chap. 5.
41. Braidwood, Black Poor, 12–14, chap 5.
42. Braidwood, Black Poor, 17, chap. 5.
43. Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery, “Gilbert Francklyn”; Braidwood, Black Poor, 11, chap. 6, and Francklyn, Observations, xii-xiii.
44. Braidwood, Black Poor, 11, chap. 6.
45. Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 1, 50.
46. Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 2, 133.
47. Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 2, 15.
48. For Napoleon and the officer’s views on Russia, see Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 1, 50, vol. 2, 153; for Ségur’s, see vol. 2, 15, 370–371.
49. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 363; Ségur, History of Expedition, vol. 2, 42.
50. Figes, The Crimean War, 9, 225; I follow Wolff on looking at both Ségur’s and Tolstoy’s versions.
51. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 373; Tolstoy, War and Peace, Locations 14512, 20614.
52. Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, 374; Tolstoy, War and Peace, Locations 27573, 27703, 27997.
Chapter 6: Benjamin Constant Critiques Conquest
This chapter draws heavily on and partly exposits the section “Constant and the Distrust of Empire” in Pitts, A Turn to Empire. It also draws heavily on Fontana, introduction, and on Rothschild, Economic Sentiments.
1. Fontana, introduction, Locations 409–414.
2. Fontana, introduction, Locations 96–98, 104–106, 208–212.
3. Pitts, Turn to Empire, 176–177; Constant, Political Writings, Locations 4536–4541.
4. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 840–844; Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 176.
5. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 173–174; Constant, Political Writings, Locations 754–757, 781–783.
6. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 180.
7. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 317.
8. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 239.
9. Mill, review of Missionaire; Mill, review of four books; for joining the East India Company, see Ball and Loizides, “James Mill.”
10. Quoted by Winch, Classical Political Economy, 163; original in Mill, review of four books, 154.
11. Partially quoted by Winch, Classical Political Economy, 164; James Mill, Testimony.
12. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3690–3691.
13. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3714–3720.
14. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3720–3725, 3741–3745.
15. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3720–3725, 3745–3746.
16. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3750–3777.
17. Constant, Political Writings, Locations 3946–3950.
18. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 173.
19. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 179.
20. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 182–183.
21. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 206.
22. Pitts, A Turn to Empire, 221–222, 224; also see Pitts, “Republicanism,” 284.
23. Pitts, “Republicanism,” 275–276.
24. Washington’s Farewell Address.
25. For Adams, see US Department of State, Adams biography; Adams, Diary, vol. 28, September 24, September 29–30, October 27, 1812; Woods, John Quincy Adams, 290 and following. For Adams and Constant, see Adams, Diary, vol. 29, February 15, 1815; May 4, 1815; February 18, 1816.
26. Adams, An Address, 22–23. For a discussion of the quote as applied to modern policy debates, see Coyne, In Search of Monsters. In 2019, a think tank named the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft was established in Washington, DC, to advocate for the principles John Quincy Adams outlined in this speech.
27. Adams, An Address, 31–32.
28. Adams, An Address, 29.
29. Guyatt, “Adams Doctrine”; Adams, An Address, 12.
30. Adams to Everett partially quoted in Murphy, Hemispheric Imaginings, 53–54; for other quotes, see Adams, Writings, 200–201, 206.
31. Guyatt, “Adams Doctrine”; Murphy, Hemispheric Imaginings, 69–70; Adams, An Address, 8, 12.
Chapter 7: The Civilizing Plan for the Creek Indians
This chapter draws heavily on Calloway, Indian World of George Washington; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians; Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction; Wright, Creeks and Seminoles; Green, The Politics of Indian Removal; Ethridge, Creek Country; Saunt, A New Order of Things and Unworthy Republic; Haveman, Rivers of Sand; Bashford and Chaplin, New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus.
1. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 142.
2. For Hawkins, see Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 2347–2353; for the Plan of Civilization, see Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson,” July 11, 1803.
3. Bashford and Chaplin, New Worlds of Malthus, 234–235.
4. Locke, Two Treatises of Government, 81–83.
5. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 325; Vattel, Law of Nations, Locations 4509, 3027.
6. Kiernan, Lords of Human Kind, 20; Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels, 181, 197.
7. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 3790–3796, 2492–2496; Williams, “William Tatham, Wataugan.”
8. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Location 2057; Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 331; Founders Online, “Henry Knox to George Washington.”
9. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 340; Washington, “Third Annual Message to Congress.”
10. For the treaty, see Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 469; Kappler, “Treaty with the Creeks.” For Washington to Lafayette, see Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 371; Founders Online, “George Washington to Lafayette, August 11, 1790.”
11. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 459; Fitzpatrick, “Speech to Indian Chiefs,” 300.
12. Washington, “Talk to the Cherokee Nation”; Fitzpatrick, “Talk to the Cherokee Nation,” 193.
13. Pound, Benjamin Hawkins, 4. Hawkins was born in North Carolina on August 15, 1754. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 468; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 2347–2353.
14. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 1832–1833, 2020–2025; Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, June 14, 1786.”
15. Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, January 23, 1800”; Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 475; Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, July 12, 1800.”
16. Founders Online, “Benjamin Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, March 1, 1801.”
17. Hawkins, “A Sketch”; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, Locations 2570–2575.
18. Jefferson, “First Annual Message to Congress, December 8, 1801.”
19. Founders Online, “Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Hawkins, February 18, 1803.”
20. Founders Online, “Hawkins to Jefferson, July 11, 1803.”
21. Calloway, Indian World of Washington, 470; Ethridge, Creek Country, 15, 19.
22. Milford, A Cursory Glance, xix–xxvii, 49–51.
