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11. Ekblom, B. Effect of physical training on oxygen transport system in man. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, Vol. 328 (Suppl.), pp. 1-45, 1969.
12. Hickson, R.C. et al. Potential for strength and endurance training to amplify endurance performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 65, pp. 2285-2290, 1988.
13. Rowell, L.B. Human circulation: Regulation during physical stress. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
14. Saltin, B. Physiological effects of physical conditioning. Medicine & Science in Sports, Vol. 1, pp. 50-56, 1969.
15. Coyle, E.F. et al. Effects of detraining on cardiovascular responses to exercise: Role of blood volume. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 60, pp. 95-99, 1986.
16. Coyle, E.F. et al. Maximal oxygen uptake relative to plasma volume expansion. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 11, pp. 116-119, 1990.
17. Blomqvist, C.G. and Saltin, B. Cardiovascular adaptations to physical training. Annual Review of Physiology, Vol. 45, pp. 169-189, 1983.
18. Holloszy, J.O. and Coyle, E.F. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental, and Exercise Physiology, Vol. 56, pp. 831-838, 1984.
19. Owen Anderson, personal observation.
20. Bassett D.R. Jr and Howley E. Maximal oxygen uptake: “Classical” versus “contemporary” viewpoints. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 29, pp. 591-603, 1997.
21. Costill, D. et al. Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 5, pp. 248-252, 1973.
22. Costill, D. The relationship between selected physiological variables and distance running performance. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, Vol. 7, pp. 61-66, 1967.
23. Davies, C.T. and Thompson, M.W. Aerobic performance of female marathon and male ultramarathon athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 61, pp. 611-617, 1979.
24. Foster, C. VO2max and training indices as determinants of competitive running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 1, pp. 13-22, 1983.
25. Foster, C. et al. Skeletal muscle enzyme activity, fiber composition, and VO2max in relation to distance running performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 39, pp. 73-80, 1978.
26. Matsui, H. et al. Maximum oxygen intake and its relationship to body weight of Japanese adolescents. Medicine & Science in Sports, Vol. 3, pp. 170-175, 1972.
27. Running performance from the viewpoint of aerobic power. In Environmental stress: Individual human adaptations. L.J. Folinsbee, J.A. Wagner, J.F. Borgia, B.L. Drinkwater, J.A. Gliner,and J.F. Bedi, eds. New York: Academic Press, 1978, pp. 183-194.
28. Wyndham, C.H. et al. Physiological requirements for world-class performances in endurance running. South African Medical Journal, Vol. 43, pp. 996-1002, 1969.
29. Noakes, T. Time to move beyond a brainless exercise physiology: The evidence for complex regulation of human exercise performance. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, Vol. 36, pp. 23-35, 2011.
30. Noakes, T. et al. Peak treadmill running velocity during the VO2max test predicts running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 8, pp. 35-45, 1990.
31. Scott, B.K. and Houmard, J.A. Peak running velocity is highly related to distance running performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 15, pp. 504-507, 1994.
32. Cairns, S.P. Lactic acid and exercise performance: culprit or friend? Sports Medicine Vol. 36(4), pp. 279-291, 2006.
33. de Paoli, F.V., Ørtenblad, N., Pedersen, T.H., Jørgensen, R., Nielsen, O.B. Lactate per se improves the excitability of depolarized rat skeletal muscle by reducing the Cl-conductance. Journal of Physiology Vol. 588(23), pp. 4785-4794.
34. Smith, T.P. et al. Effects of 4-wk training using vmax/tmax on VO2max and performance in athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 31 (6), pp. 892-896, 1999.
35. Paton, C. and Hopkins, W. Effects of high-intensity training on performance and physiology of endurance athletes. Sports Science, Vol. 8, pp. 25-40, 2004.
36. Wenger, H. and Macnab, R. Endurance training: The effects of intensity, total work, duration, and initial fitness. Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 15, pp. 199-211, 1975.
37. Anderson, O. Plodding won’t produce peak aerobic capacity: Using the right running speed seems to be the key. Running Research News, Vol. 4 (6), pp. 1-5, 1988.
38. Wenger, H. et al. The interactions of intensity, frequency, and duration of exercise training in altering cardiorespiratory fitness. Sports Medicine, Vol. 3, pp. 346-356, 1986.
39. The effect of distance training and interval training on aerobic and anaerobic capacity, muscle fiber characteristics, and performance in endurance-trained runners. Twelfth European Track Coaches’ Congress, Acoteias, Portugal, pp. 10-16.
40. Anderson, O. Sweating out those last little gains in VO2max: How “anaerobic” running produces large aerobic gains. Running Research News, Vol. 7 (1), pp. 1, 3-4, 1991.
Chapter 8 Running Economy
1. Morgan, D.W. et al. Factors affecting running economy. Sports Medicine, Vol. 7 (5), pp. 310-330, 1989.
2. Conley, D.L. and Krahenbuhl, G.S. Running economy and distance running performance of highly trained athletes. Medicine & Science of Sports & Exercise, Vol. 12 (5), pp. 357-360, 1980.
3. Spurrs, R. et al. The effect of plyometric training on distance running performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 89, pp. 1-7, 2003.
4. Davies, C.T. and Thompson, M.W. Aerobic performance of female marathon and male ultra-marathon athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 41, pp. 233-245, 1979.
5. Economy of movement and endurance performance. In Endurance in sport. R.J. Shephard and P.O. Astrand, eds. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1992, pp. 179-185.
6. Bailey, S. and Pate, R. Feasibility of improving running economy. Sports Medicine, Vol. 12, pp. 228-236, 1991.
7. Pugh, L. The influence of wind resistance in running and walking and the mechanical efficiency of work against gravity. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 213, pp. 255-276, 1971.
8. Liefeldt, G. et al. Oxygen delivery does not limit peak running speed during incremental downhill running to exhaustion. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 64, pp. 493-496, 1992.
9. Robergs, R. et al. Oxygen consumption and energy expenditure of level versus downhill running. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, Vol. 37, pp. 168-174, 1997.
10. Burkett, L. et al. Effects of shoes and foot orthotics on VO2 and selected frontal plane knee kinematics. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 17 (1), pp. 158-163, 1985.
11. Kerdok, A. et al. Energetics and mechanisms of human running on surfaces of different stiffnesses. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 92 (2), pp. 469-478, 2002.
12. Daniels, J. A physiologist’s view of running economy. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 17, pp. 332-338, 1985.
13. Morgan, D.W. and Craib, M. Physiological aspects of running economy. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 24, pp. 456-461, 1992.
14. Lucia, A. et al. Physiological characteristics of the best Eritrean runners: Exceptional running economy. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, & Metabolism, Vol. 31 (5), pp. 530-540, 2006.
15. Kram, R. and Taylor, R. Energetics of running: A new perspective, Nature, Vol. 346, pp. 265-267, 1990.
16. Heise, G.D. and Martin, P.E. Are variations in running economy in humans associated with ground reaction force characteristics? European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 84, pp. 438-442, 2001.
17. Heise, G.D. and Martin, P.E. Neuromuscular characteristics and muscle power as determinants of 5-km running performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 31, pp. 124-130, 1999.
18. Nummela, A. et al. Factors related to top running speed and economy. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 28, pp. 655-661, 2007.
19. Blum, Y., Lipfert, S.W., and Seyfarth, A.Effective leg stiffness in running. Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 42 (14), pp. 2400-2405, 2009.
20. Gleim, G. et al. The influence of flexibility on the economy of walking and jogging. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, Vol. 8, pp. 814-823, 1990.
21. Craib, M. et al. The association between flexibility and running economy in sub-elite male distance runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 28, pp. 737-743, 1996.
22. Anderson, T. Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Medicine, Vol. 22, pp. 76-89, 1996.
23. Cavanagh, P.R. and Williams, K.R. The effect of stride length variation on oxygen uptake during distance running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol.14 (1), pp. 30-35, 1982.
24. Morgan, D. et al. Effect of step length optimization on the aerobic demand of running. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 77 (1), pp. 245-251, 1994.
25. Svedenhag, J. and Sjödin, B. Maximal and submaximal oxygen uptakes and blood lactate levels in elite male middle- and long-distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 5, pp. 255-261, 1984.
26. Houmard, J. et al. The effects of taper on performance in distance runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 26, pp. 624-631, 1994.
27. Endurance conditioning. In Endurance in sport, R.J. Shephard and P.O. Astrand, eds. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1992, pp. 294-295.
28. Johnston, R. et al. Strength training in female distance runners: Impact on running economy. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, Vol. 11 (4), pp. 224-229, 1997.
29. Paavolainen, L. et al. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 86 (5), pp. 1527-1533, 1999.
30. Daniels, J., and Daniels, N. Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 24, pp. 483-489, 1992.
31. Beneke, R. and Hütler, M. The effect of training on running economy and performance in recreational athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 37 (10), pp. 1794-1799, 2005.
Chapter 9 Minimum Velocity for Maximal Aerobic Capacity (vO2max)
1. Anderson, O. VodO2max is a poor predictor of performance, but computing your velocity at vo2max can pay big benefits. Running Research News, Vol. 10 (5), pp. 1-3, Sept.-Oct.1994.
2. McLaughlin, J. et al. Test of the classic model for predicting endurance running performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 42 (5), pp. 991-997, 2010.
3. Cunningham, L. Relationship of running economy, ventilatory threshold, and maximal oxygen consumption to running performance in high school females. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 61 (4), pp. 369-374, 1990.
4. Morgan, D. et al. 10 kilometer performance and predicted velocity at VO2max among well-trained male runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 21 (1), pp. 78-83, 1989.
5. Billat, L.V. and Koralsztein, J.P. Significance of the velocity at VO2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Medicine, Vol. 22 (2), pp. 90-108, 1996.
6. Billat, V. et al. Interval training at VO2max: Effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 31 (1), pp. 156-163, 1999.
7. Anderson, O. Things were so easy, until vVO2max and then tlimvVO2max had to come along. Running Research News, Vol. 15 (2), pp. 1-5, 1999.
Chapter 10 Velocity at Lactate Threshold
1. Bassett D.R. Jr and Howley, E.T. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 32 (1), pp. 70-84, 2000.
2. Noakes, T.D. and St. Clair Gibson, A. Logical limitations to the “catastrophe” models of fatigue during exercise in humans. British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 38(5), p. 648-649.
3. Noakes, T.D. Time to move beyond a brainless exercise physiology: The evidence for complex regulation of human exercise perfornmance. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, Vol. 36(1), p. 23-35.
4. Miles, M.P. and Clarkson, P.M. Exercise-induced muscle pain, soreness, and cramps. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, Vol. 34(3), p. 203-216.
5. Tenan, M.S., McMurray, R.G., Blackburn, B.T., McGarth, M., Leppert, K. The relationship between blood potassium, blood lactate, and electromyography signals related to fatigue in a progressive cycling exercise test. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, Vol. 21(1), p. 25-32.
6. Astrand, P. et al. Disposal of lactate during and after strenuous exercise in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 61 (1), pp. 338-343, 1986.
7. Jacobs, I. Blood lactate: Implications for training and sports performance. Sports Medicine, Vol. 3, pp. 10-25, 1986.
8. Tanaka, K. et al. A longitudinal assessment of anaerobic threshold and distance-running performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 16 (3), pp. 278-282, 1984.
9. Martin, D. et al. Physiological changes in elite male distance runners training for Olympic competition. The Physician and Sports Medicine, Vol. 14 (1), pp. 152-171, 1986.
10. Marc Rogers, personal communication.
11. Orlander, J. and Aniansson, A. Effects of physical training on skeletal muscle metabolism and ultrastructure in 70- to 75-year-old men. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, Vol. 109, pp. 149-156, 1980.
12. Young, J.C. et al. Maintenance of the adaptations of skeletal muscle mitochondria to exercise in old rats. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 15, pp. 243-251, 1983.
13. Grimby, G. and Saltin, B. The ageing muscle. Clinical Physiology, Vol. 3, pp. 209-218, 1983.
14. Allen, W. et al. Lactate threshold and distance-running performance in young and older endurance athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 58 (4), pp. 1281-1284, 1985.
Chapter 11 Maximal Running Speed
1. Noakes, T. et al. Peak treadmill running velocity during the VO2max test predicts running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 35-45, 1990.
2. Slattery, K. et al. Physiological determinants of three-kilometer running performance in experienced triathletes. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, Vol. 20 (1), pp. 47-52, 2006.
3. Sinnett, A. et al. The relationship between field tests of anaerobic power and 10-km run performance. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, Vol. 15 (4), pp. 405-412 2001.
4. Paavolainen, L. et al. Explosive strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 86 (5) pp. 1527-1533, 1999.
5. Weyand, P. et al. Faster top running speeds are achieved with greater ground forces, not more rapid leg movements. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 89 (5), pp. 1991-1999, 2000.
Chapter 12 Resistance to Fatigue
1. Coetzer, P. et al. Superior fatigue resistance of elite black South African distance runners. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 75, pp. 1822-1827, 1993.
2. Noakes, T. et al. Peak treadmill velocity during the VO2max test predicts running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 35-45, 1990.
3. Weston, A. et al. African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 86 (3), pp. 915-923, 1999.
4. Bergström, J. et al. Diet, muscle glycogen, and physical performance. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, Vol. 71, pp. 140-150, 1967.
5. Coyle, E. et al. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 61, pp. 165-172, 1986.
6. Noakes, T. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, Vol. 10, pp. 123-145, 2000.
7. Noakes, T. D. Lore of running. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1992.
8. McCann, D. and Adams, W. Wet bulb globe temperature index and performance in competitive distance runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 29, pp. 955-961, 1997.
9. González-Alonso, J. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 86, pp. 1032-1039, 1999.
10. Dennis, S. and Noakes, T. Advantages of smaller body mass for distance running performances in warm, humid conditions. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 79, pp. 280-284, 1999.
11. Owen Anderson, personal observation.
12. Komi, P. Stretch-shortening cycle fatigue. In Biomechanics and biology of movement, B. Nigg et al., ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000.
13. Lieberman, D.E. et al. Foot strike patterns and collision forces in habitually barefoot versus shod runners. Nature, Vol. 463 (7280), pp. 531-5, Jan. 2010.
14. Brooks, J.H. et al. Incidence, risk, and prevention of hamstring muscle injuries in professional rugby union. American Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. 34 (8), pp. 1297-306, Aug. 2006.
15. Billat, V. Training and bioenergetic characteristics in elite male and female Kenyan runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 35, pp. 297-304, 2003.
16. Kayser, B. Exercise starts and ends in the brain. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 90, pp. 411-419, 2003.
17. St. Clair Gibson, A. et al. Reduced neuromuscular activity and force generation during prolonged cycling. American Journal of Physiology–Regulatory, Integrative Comparative Physiology, Vol. 281, pp. R187-R196, 2001.
18. Kay, D. et al. Evidence for neuromuscular fatigue during high-intensity cycling in warm, humid conditions. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 84, pp. 115-121, 2001.
19. Nummela, A. et al. Neuromuscular factors determining 5 km running performance and running economy in well-trained athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 97(1), pp. 1-8, 2006.
20. Aagaard, P. et al. Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 93 (4), pp. 1318-26, Oct. 2002.
Chapter 13 General Strength Training
1. Wilmore, J.H. et al. Energy cost of circuit weight training. Medicine & Science in Sports, Vol. 10 (2), pp. 75-78, 1978.
2. Wilmore, J.H. et al. Physiological alterations consequent to circuit weight training. Medicine & Science in Sports, Vol. 10 (2), pp. 79-84, 1978.
