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13 Dumont, G. J., Sweep, F. C. G. J., Van der Steen, R., et al., “Increased Oxytocin Concentrations and Prosocial Feelings in Humans after Ecstasy (3, 4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine) Administration,” Social Neuroscience 4, no. 4 (2009): 359–66.
14 Feldman, R., “Oxytocin and Social Affiliation in Humans,” Hormones and Behavior 61, no. 3 (2012): 380–91.
15 Zak, P. J., Stanton, A. A., and Ahmadi, S., “Oxytocin Increases Generosity in Humans,” PloS One 2, no. 11 (2007): e1128.
16 Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., and Fehr, E., “Oxytocin Increases Trust in Humans,” Nature 435, no. 7042 (2005): 673–76.
17 Domes, G., Heinrichs, M., Michel, A., Berger, C., and Herpertz, S. C., “Oxytocin Improves ‘Mind-Reading’ in Humans,” Biological Psychiatry 61, no. 6 (2007): 731–33.
18 Guastella, A. J., Einfeld, S. L., Gray, K. M., et al., “Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Emotion Recognition for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Biological Psychiatry 67, no. 7 (2010): 692–94.
19 Guastella, A. J., Mitchell, P. B., and Dadds, M. R., “Oxytocin Increases Gaze to the Eye Region of Human Faces,” Biological Psychiatry 63, no. 1 (2008): 3–5.
20 Seyfarth, R. M., and Cheney, D. L., “Affiliation, Empathy, and the Origins of Theory of Mind,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. S2 (2013): 10349–356.
21 Seed, A. M., Clayton, N. S., and Emery, N. J., “Postconflict Third-Party Affiliation in Rooks, Corvus Frugilegus,” Current Biology 17, no. 2 (2007): 152–58.
22 Dally, J. M., Emery, N. J., and Clayton, N. S., “Food-Caching Western Scrub-Jays Keep Track of Who Was Watching When,” Science 312, no. 5780 (2006): 1662–65.
23 Cloutier, S., Newberry, R. C., Honda, K., and Alldredge, J. R., “Cannibalistic Behaviour Spread by Social Learning,” Animal Behaviour 63, no. 6 (2002): 1153–62.
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25 Jacobs, G. H., “Evolution of Colour Vision in Mammals,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364, no. 1531 (2009): 2957–67; Hall, M. I., Kamilar, J. M., and Kirk, E. C. “Eye Shape and the Nocturnal Bottleneck of Mammals,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1749 (2012): 4962–68; Heesy, C. P., and Hall, M. I., “The Nocturnal Bottleneck and the Evolution of Mammalian Vision,” Brain Behavior and Evolution 75, no. 3 (2010): 195–203.
26 Heesy, C. P., “Seeing in Stereo: The Ecology and Evolution of Primate Binocular Vision and Stereopsis,” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 18, no. 1 (2009): 21–35.
27 Carvalho, S., Biro, D., Cunha, E., et al., “Chimpanzee Carrying Behaviour and the Origins of Human Bipedality,” Current Biology 22, no. 6 (2012): R180–81.
28 Van Schaik, C. P., “Why Are Diurnal Primates Living in Groups?” Behaviour 87, nos. 1–2 (1983): 120–44.
29 De Dreu, C. K., Greer, L. L., Van Kleef, G. A., Shalvi, S., and Handgraaf, M. J., “Oxytocin Promotes Human Ethnocentrism,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 4 (2011): 1262–66.
30 De Dreu, C. K., Greer, L. L., Handgraaf, M. J., et al., “The Neuropeptide Oxytocin Regulates Parochial Altruism in Intergroup Conflict among Humans,” Science 328, no. 5984 (2010): 1408–11.
31 Dunbar, R. I., “Neocortex Size as a Constraint on Group Size in Primates,” Journal of Human Evolution 22, no. 6 (1992): 469–93.
Chapter 9: Animals of Abstraction
1 Carew, T. J., Castellucci, V. F., and Kandel, E. R., “An Analysis of Dishabituation and Sensitization of the Gill-Withdrawal Reflex in Aplysia,” International Journal of Neuroscience 2, no. 2 (1971): 79–98.
2 Kandel, E. R., Behavioral Biology of Aplysia (W. H. Freeman and Company, 1979).
3 Woods, S. S., Resnick, L. B., and Groen, G. J., “An Experimental Test of Five Process Models for Subtraction,” Journal of Educational Psychology 67, no. 1 (1975): 17.
4 Kamii, C., Lewis, B. A., and Kirkland, L. D., “Fluency in Subtraction Compared with Addition,” Journal of Mathematical Behavior 20, no. 1 (2001): 33–42.
5 Ballard, D. H., Brain Computation as Hierarchical Abstraction (MIT Press, 2015).
6 Martin, K. C., Casadio, A., Zhu, H., et al., “Synapse-Specific, Long-Term Facilitation of Aplysia Sensory to Motor Synapses: A Function for Local Protein Synthesis in Memory Storage,” Cell 91, no. 7 (1997): 927–38; Montarolo, P. G., Goelet, P., Castellucci, V. F., Morgan, J., Kandel, E. R., and Schacher, S., “A Critical Period for Macromolecular Synthesis in Long-Term Heterosynaptic Facilitation in Aplysia,” Science 234, no. 4781 (1986): 1249–54.
7 Flexner, J. B., Flexner, L. B., and Stellar, E., “Memory in Mice as Affected by Intracerebral Puromycin,” Science 141, no. 3575 (1963): 57–59.
8 Castellucci, V. F., Blumenfeld, H., Goelet, P., and Kandel, E. R., “Inhibitor of Protein Synthesis Blocks Longterm Behavioral Sensitization in the Isolated Gill‐Withdrawal Reflex of Aplysia,” Journal of Neurobiology 20, no. 1 (1989): 1–9.
9 Montarolo, P. G., Goelet, P., Castellucci, V. F., Morgan, J., Kandel, E. R., and Schacher, S., “A Critical Period for Macromolecular Synthesis in Long-Term Heterosynaptic Facilitation in Aplysia,” Science 234, no. 4781 (1986): 1249–54.
10 Caraci, F., Battaglia, G., Bruno, V., et al., “TGF‐β1 Pathway as a New Target for Neuroprotection in Alzheimer’s Disease,” CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics 17, no. 4 (2011): 237–49; Zhang, F., Endo, S., Cleary, L. J., Eskin, A., and Byrne, J. H., “Role of Transforming Growth Factor-β in Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation in Aplysia,” Science 275, no. 5304 (1997): 1318–20.
11 Kukushkin, N. V., Carney, R. E., Tabassum, T., and Carew, T. J., “The Massed-Spaced Learning Effect in Non-Neural Human Cells,” Nature Communications 15, no. 1 (2024): 9635.
12 Kukushkin, N. V., Tabassum, T., and Carew, T. J., “Precise Timing of ERK Phosphorylation/Dephosphorylation Determines the Outcome of Trial Repetition during Long-Term Memory Formation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 40 (2022): e2210478119.
13 Louie, K., and Wilson, M. A., “Temporally Structured Replay of Awake Hippocampal Ensemble Activity during Rapid Eye Movement Sleep,” Neuron 29, no. 1 (2001): 145–56.
14 Chalmers, D. J., “Facing up to the Problem of Consciousness,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 2, no. 3 (1995): 200–219.
15 Clark, A., Friston, K., and Wilkinson, S., “Bayesing Qualia: Consciousness as Inference, not Raw Datum,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 26, nos. 9–10 (2019): 19–33.
Chapter 10: Fire from Within
1 Herwig, A., and Schneider, W. X., “Predicting Object Features across Saccades: Evidence from Object Recognition and Visual Search,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143, no. 5 (2014): 1903; Land, M., and Tatler, B., Looking and Acting: Vision and Eye Movements in Natural Behaviour (Oxford University Press, 2009).
2 Herwig, A., and Schneider, W. X., “Predicting Object Features across Saccades: Evidence from Object Recognition and Visual Search,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143, no. 5 (2014): 1903.
3 Weerd, P. D., Gattass, R., Desimone, R., and Ungerleider, L. G., “Responses of Cells in Monkey Visual Cortex during Perceptual Filling-in of an Artificial Scotoma,” Nature 377, no. 6551 (1995): 731–34.
4 Doss, M. K., Madden, M. B., Gaddis, A., et al., “Models of Psychedelic Drug Action: Modulation of Cortical-Subcortical Circuits,” Brain, 145, no. 2 (2022): 441–56.
5 Bartolomei, F., Barbeau, E., Gavaret, M., et al., “Cortical Stimulation Study of the Role of Rhinal Cortex in Deja Vu and Reminiscence of Memories,” Neurology 63, no. 5 (2004): 858–64.
6 Wimmer, K., Nykamp, D. Q., Constantinidis, C., and Compte, A., “Bump Attractor Dynamics in Prefrontal Cortex Explains Behavioral Precision in Spatial Working Memory,” Nature Neuroscience 17, no. 3 (2014): 431–39.
7 Ackman, J. B., Burbridge, T. J., and Crair, M. C., “Retinal Waves Coordinate Patterned Activity throughout the Developing Visual System,” Nature 490, no. 7419 (2012): 219–25.
8 Thomson, E. E., Carra, R., and Nicolelis, M. A., “Perceiving Invisible Light through a Somatosensory Cortical Prosthesis,” Nature Communications 4, no. 1 (2013): 1482.
9 Gindrat, A. D., Chytiris, M., Balerna, M., Rouiller, E. M., and Ghosh, A., “Use-Dependent Cortical Processing from Fingertips in Touchscreen Phone Users,” Current Biology 25, no. 1 (2015): 109–16.
10 Elbert, T., Pantev, C., Wienbruch, C., Rockstroh, B., and Taub, E., “Increased Cortical Representation of the Fingers of the Left Hand in String Players,” Science 270, no. 5234 (1995): 305–7.
11 Tononi, G., “An Information Integration Theory of Consciousness,” BMC Neuroscience 5 (2004): 1–22.
12 Friston, K., “A Theory of Cortical Responses,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360, no. 1456 (2005): 815–36.
13 Lawrence, S. J., Norris, D. G., and De Lange, F. P., “Dissociable Laminar Profiles of Concurrent Bottom-Up and Top-Down Modulation in the Human Visual Cortex,” Elife 8 (2019): e44422.
14 Shipp, S., “The Importance of Being Agranular: A Comparative Account of Visual and Motor Cortex,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 360, no. 1456 (2005): 797–814.
15 García‐Cabezas, M. Á., and Barbas, H., “Area 4 Has Layer IV in Adult Primates,” European Journal of Neuroscience 39, no. 11 (2014): 1824–34.
16 Plato, Timaeus, trans. B. Jowett (Echo Library, 2006).
17 Siegel, R. E., “Principles and Contradictions of Galen’s Doctrine of Vision,” Sudhoffs Archive 54, no. 3 (1970): 261–76.
18 Gregg, V. R., Winer, G. A., Cottrell, J. E., Hedman, K. E., and Fournier, J. S., “The Persistence of a Misconception about Vision after Educational Interventions,” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 8 (2001): 622–26.
19 Thibodeau, P., “Ancient Optics: Theories and Problems of Vision,” in A Companion to Science, Technology, and Medicine in Ancient Greece and Rome (John Wiley, 2016), 130–44.
Chapter 11: The Dark Room
1 Friston, K., Thornton, C., and Clark, A., “Free-Energy Minimization and the Dark-Room Problem,” Frontiers in Psychology 3 (2012): 130; Clark, A., “Whatever Next? Predictive Brains, Situated Agents, and the Future of Cognitive Science,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36, no. 3 (2013): 181–204.
2 Sacks, O., Awakenings (Pan Macmillan, 1991).
3 Zhou, Q. Y., and Palmiter, R. D., “Dopamine-Deficient Mice Are Severely Hypoactive, Adipsic, and Aphagic,” Cell 83, no. 7 (1995): 1197–209.
4 Wardle, M. C., Treadway, M. T., Mayo, L. M., Zald, D. H., and de Wit, H., “Amping Up Effort: Effects of D-Amphetamine on Human Effort-Based Decision-Making,” Journal of Neuroscience 31, no. 46 (2011): 16597–602.
5 Wyvell, C. L., and Berridge, K. C., “Intra-Accumbens Amphetamine Increases the Conditioned Incentive Salience of Sucrose Reward: Enhancement of Reward ‘Wanting’ without Enhanced ‘Liking’ or Response Reinforcement,” Journal of Neuroscience 20, no. 21 (2000): 8122–30.
6 Otani, S., Daniel, H., Roisin, M. P., and Crepel, F., “Dopaminergic Modulation of Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity in Rat Prefrontal Neurons,” Cerebral Cortex 13, no. 11 (2003): 1251–56.
7 Sulzer, J., Sitaram, R., Blefari, M. L., et al., “Neurofeedback-Mediated Self-Regulation of the Dopaminergic Midbrain,” NeuroImage 83 (2013): 817–25.
8 Tik, M., Sladky, R., Luft, C. D. B., et al., “Ultra‐High‐Field fMRI Insights on Insight: Neural Correlates of the Aha!‐Moment,” Human Brain Mapping 39, no. 8 (2018): 3241–52; Oh, Y., Chesebrough, C., Erickson, B., Zhang, F., and Kounios, J., “An Insight-Related Neural Reward Signal,” NeuroImage 214 (2020): 116757.
9 Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., and Zatorre, R. J., “Anatomically Distinct Dopamine Release during Anticipation and Experience of Peak Emotion to Music,” Nature Neuroscience 14, no. 2 (2011): 257–62.
10 Schultz, W., Tremblay, L., and Hollerman, J. R., “Reward Processing in Primate Orbitofrontal Cortex and Basal Ganglia,” Cerebral Cortex 10, no. 3 (2000): 272–83.
11 Knutson, B., Fong, G. W., Adams, C. M., Varner, J. L., and Hommer, D., “Dissociation of Reward Anticipation and Outcome with Event-Related fMRI,” Neuroreport 12, no. 17 (2001): 3683–87.
12 Treadway, M. T., Buckholtz, J. W., Cowan, R. L., et al., “Dopaminergic Mechanisms of Individual Differences in Human Effort-Based Decision-Making,” Journal of Neuroscience 32, no. 18 (2012): 6170–76.
13 Ferster, C. B., and Skinner, B. F., Schedules of Reinforcement (Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1957).
14 Wanat, M. J., Kuhnen, C. M., and Phillips, P. E., “Delays Conferred by Escalating Costs Modulate Dopamine Release to Rewards but Not Their Predictors,” Journal of Neuroscience 30, no. 36 (2010): 12020–27; Fiorillo, C. D., Tobler, P. N., and Schultz, W., “Discrete Coding of Reward Probability and Uncertainty by Dopamine Neurons,” Science 299, no. 5614 (2003): 1898–1902.
15 Berridge, K. C., and Robinson, T. E., “What Is the Role of Dopamine in Reward: Hedonic Impact, Reward Learning, or Incentive Salience?” Brain Research Reviews 28, no. 3 (1998): 309–69.
16 Berridge, K. C., and Kringelbach, M. L., “Pleasure Systems in the Brain,” Neuron 86, no. 3 (2015): 646–64.
17 Williams, J. T., Christie, M. J., and Manzoni, O., “Cellular and Synaptic Adaptations Mediating Opioid Dependence,” Physiological Reviews 81, no. 1 (2001): 299–343.
18 Mas‐Herrero, E., Ferreri, L., Cardona, G., et al., “The Role of Opioid Transmission in Music‐Induced Pleasure,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1520, no. 1 (2023): 105–14.
19 Ho, C. Y., and Berridge, K. C., “Excessive Disgust Caused by Brain Lesions or Temporary Inactivations: Mapping Hotspots of the Nucleus Accumbens and Ventral Pallidum,” European Journal of Neuroscience 40, no. 10 (2014): 3556–72; Williams, J. T., Christie, M. J., and Manzoni, O., “Cellular and Synaptic Adaptations Mediating Opioid Dependence,” Physiological Reviews 81, no. 1 (2001): 299–343.
20 Damasio, A., Damasio, H., and Tranel, D., “Persistence of Feelings and Sentience after Bilateral Damage of the Insula,” Cerebral Cortex 23, no. 4 (2013): 833–46.
Chapter 12: In the Beginning Was the Word
1 Heil, M., and Karban, R., “Explaining Evolution of Plant Communication by Airborne Signals,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25, no. 3 (2010): 137–44.
2 Wyatt, T. D., Pheromones and Animal Behavior: Chemical Signals and Signatures (Cambridge University Press, 2014).
3 Haddock, S. H., Moline, M. A., and Case, J. F., “Bioluminescence in the Sea,” Annual Review of Marine Science 2, no. 1 (2010): 443–93; Martini, S., and Haddock, S. H., “Quantification of Bioluminescence from the Surface to the Deep Sea Demonstrates Its Predominance as an Ecological Trait,” Scientific Reports 7, no. 1 (2017): 45750.
4 Janik, V. M., and Sayigh, L. S., “Communication in Bottlenose Dolphins: 50 Years of Signature Whistle Research,” Journal of Comparative Physiology A 199 (2013): 479–89.
5 Seyfarth, R. M., Cheney, D. L., and Marler, P., “Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls: Semantic Communication in a Free-Ranging Primate,” Animal Behaviour 28, no. 4 (1980): 1070–94.
6 Humboldt, W. von, Linguistic Variability & Intellectual Development (University of Miami Press, 1971).
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8 Colapinto, J., “Has a Remote Amazonian Tribe Upended Our Understanding of Language?” New Yorker, April 16, 2007.
9 Everett, D., “Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirahã: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language,” Current Anthropology 46, no. 4 (2005): 621–46; Everett, D. L., “Challenging Chomskyan Linguistics: The Case of Pirahã,” Human Development 50, no. 6 (2007): 297–99.
10 Sakel, J., “Acquiring Complexity: The Portuguese of Some Pirahã Men,” Linguistic Discovery 10, no. 1 (2012).
11 Botha, R., “On Homesign Systems as a Potential Window on Language Evolution,” Language & Communication 27, no. 1 (2007): 41–53.
12 Pyers, J. E., and Senghas, A., “Language Promotes False-Belief Understanding: Evidence from Learners of a New Sign Language,” Psychological Science 20, no. 7 (2009): 805–12; Pyers, J. E., Shusterman, A., Senghas, A., Spelke, E. S., and Emmorey, K., “Evidence from an Emerging Sign Language Reveals That Language Supports Spatial Cognition,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 27 (2010): 12116–20; Senghas, A., “Intergenerational Influence and Ontogenetic Development in the Emergence of Spatial Grammar in Nicaraguan Sign Language,” Cognitive Development 18, no. 4 (2003): 511–31.
13 Pyers, J. E., Shusterman, A., Senghas, A., Spelke, E. S., and Emmorey, K., “Evidence from an Emerging Sign Language Reveals That Language Supports Spatial Cognition,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 27 (2010): 12116–20.
14 Gordon, P., “Numerical Cognition without Words: Evidence from Amazonia,” Science 306, no. 5695 (2004): 496–99.
15 Berlin, B., and Kay, P., Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution (University of California Press, 1991).
16 Malotki, E., Hopi Time: A Linguistic Analysis of the Temporal Concepts in the Hopi Language (Walter de Gruyter, 2011).
17 Senghas, A., “Intergenerational Influence and Ontogenetic Development in the Emergence of Spatial Grammar in Nicaraguan Sign Language,” Cognitive Development 18, no. 4 (2003): 511–31.
18 Rensberger, B., “Chimpanzees Teach Sign Language: Scientists Told That Apes in Experiments Instruct Each Other,” Washington Post, May 29, 1985.
19 Fouts, R. S., and Fouts, D. H., “Loulis in Conversation with the Cross-Fostered Chimpanzees,” in Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, ed. R. A. Gardner, B. T. Gardner, and T. E. Van Cantfort (State University of New York Press, 1989), 293–307.
