Dark Continent, page 54
9. P. Hennessy and G. Brownfield, “Britain’s cold war security purge: the origins of positive vetting,” Historical Journal, 25: 4 (1982), pp. 965–73
10. C. Friedrich, “The political theory of the new constitutions,” in A. Zurcher (ed.), Constitutions and Constitutional Trends since World War II (New York, 1955)
11. S. Padgett and W. Paterson, A History of Social Democracy in Postwar Europe (London, 1991), pp. 13, 110
12. Gaitskell in B. Moore-Gilbert and J. Seed (eds.), Cultural Revolution? The Challenge of the Arts in the 1960s (London, 1992), p. 22; Crossman cited in M. Pinto-Duschinsky, “Bread and circuses? The Conservatives in office, 1951–1964,” in V. Bogdanor and R. Skidelsky (eds.), The Age of Affluence, 1951–1964 (London, 1970), p. 93
13. A. J. Nicholls, Freedom with Responsibility: The Social Market Economy in Germany, 1918–1963 (Oxford 1994), p. 11; also M. Mitchell, “Materialism and secularism: CDU politicians and National Socialism, 1945–1949,” Journal of Modern History, 67 (June 1995), pp. 278–308
14. Lane and Ersson, op. cit., pp. 304–6
15. P. Armstrong, A. Glyn and J. Harrison, Capitalism since World War II: The Making and Breakup of the Great Boom (London, 1984), pp. 156, 161–2; Dutch emigration policy, L. Kosinski, The Population of Europe (London, 1970), p. 71; L. Wylie, Village in the Vaucluse (Cambridge, Mass., 1974 edn), p. 33
16. UN, Economic Survey of Europe since the War: A Reappraisal of Problems and Prospects (Geneva, 1953), pp. 81–3, 234
17. R. Carr, Modern Spain, 1875–1980 (Oxford, 1980), pp. 156–8; Gallagher, Portugal: A Twentieth Century Interpretation (Manchester, 1983), p. 138; A. Cochrane and J. Clarke (eds.), Comparing Welfare States: Britain in International Context (London, 1993), pp. 211–14
18. Figures from A. Maddison, “Economic policy and performance in Europe, 1913–1970,” in Cipolla (ed.), The Fontana Economic History of Europe, vol. 5: The Twentieth Century: 2 (London, 1981), pp. 442–509; J. Holloway, “The Dickensian environment,” The Listener, 12 January 1967
19. J. Tomlinson, Public Policy and the Economy since 1900 (Oxford, 1990), p. 238
20. A. Boltho (ed.) The European Economy: Growth and Crisis (Oxford, 1982), pp. 11–16; E. Denison, Why Growth Rates Differ (Washington, DC, 1967)
21. The debate is chiefly between A. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951 (London, 1984) and M. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952 (Cambridge, 1987). For US aid, M. Postan, An Economic History of Western Europe, 1945–1964 (London, 1967), p. 106
22. A. Maddison, Phases of Capitalist Development (Oxford, 1982), pp. 96–9; C. Maier, “Politics of productivity,” in P. J. Katzenstein (ed.), Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States (Madison, Wis., 1978); from a growing literature on productivity, D. W. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction (London, 1992); R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, Calif., 1993); for TU suspicions, see A. Carew, “The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–1952): the ideological roots of the post-war debate on productivity in Britain,” Journal of Contemporary History, 26 (1991), pp. 49–69
23. Wiskemann, op. cit., p. 176
24. G. Lundestad, The American “Empire” and Other Studies of US Foreign Policy in a Comparative Perspective (Oslo, 1990); Postan, op. cit., p. 25
25. Ellwood, op. cit., pp. 218–19
26. A. Shonfield, Modern Capitalism: The Changing Balance of Public and Private Power (Oxford, 1965), p. 3
27. ibid., p. 62; N. F. R. Crafts, “The golden age of economic growth in Western Europe, 1950–1973,” Economic History Review, 48:3 (1995), pp. 429–47
28. Nicholls, op. cit., p. 321
29. The argument is made for Britain by C. Barnett, The Audit of War (London, 1986), and refuted by J. Harris, “Enterprise and welfare states: a comparative perspective,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1990), pp. 175–95
30. Attlee in R. Lowe, The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 (London, 1993), p. 10; T. H. Marshall, Class, Citizenship, and Social Development (New York, 1965)
31. G. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Cambridge, 1990); Titmuss in Lowe, op. cit., p. 12
32. Cited in K. D. Bracher, The Age of Ideologies: A History of Political Thought in the 20th Century (London, 1985), p. 200
33. Cochrane, op. cit., p. 32
34. T. H. Marshall, “The welfare state—a comparative study,” in his Class, Citizenship and Social Development, op. cit., p. 313; Ambrosius and Hubbard, op. cit., p. 128; Titmuss, op. cit., p. 241
35. Baldwin denies any necessary link between specific classes and redistributive social policy: P. Baldwin, The Politics of Social Solidarity: Class Bases of the European Welfare State, 1875–1975 (Cambridge, 1990), p. 290
36. Marshall, Class, Citizenship and Social Development, op. cit., pp. 297–300, 330
37. Shonfield, op. cit., p. xv; on the resilience of French conservatism, see R. Vinen, Bourgeois Politics in France, 1945–1951 (Cambridge, 1995); A. Pizzorno, “The individualistic mobilisation of Europe,” Daedalus, 93: 1 (winter 1964)
38. Cited in W. Sachs, For Love of the Automobile: Looking Back into the History of Our Desires (Berkeley/Los Angeles, Calif., 1992), pp. 55–6
39. On women, see S. Weiner, “The consommatrice of the 1950s in Elsa Triolet’s Roses à crédit,” French Cultural Studies, vi (1995), pp. 123–44; C. Duchen, Women’s Rights and Women’s Lives in France, 1944–1968 (London, 1994); Bikini: Die Fünfziger Jahre (Berlin, 1983), p. 200; M. Boneschi, La grande illusione: i nostri anni sessanta (Milan, 1996), p. 93
40. F. Mort and P. Thompson, “Retailing, commercial culture and masculinity in 1950s Britain: the case of Montague Burton, the ‘Tailor of Taste,’ ” History Workshop Journal, 38 (1994), pp. 106–29; J. Pearson and G. Turner, The Persuasion Industry (London, 1965), pp. 30–31
41. T. R. Nevitt, Advertising in Britain: A History (London, 1982)
42. Wylie, op. cit., pp. 181, 347; R. Harris and A. Seldon, Advertising in Action (London, 1962), pp. 23–4
43. A. Sampson, Anatomy of Europe (New York, 1968), p. 116; R. Wagnleiter, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War (Chapel Hill, NC/London, 1994), p. 294; S. Gundle, “L’americanizzazione del quotidiano: televisione e consumismo nell’Italia degli anni cinquanta,” Quaderni storici, 62 (August 1986), pp. 561–94; Hiscocks, op. cit., p. 55; K. Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge, Mass./London, 1995), p. 53; Gundle, op. cit., p. 588
44. C. Dyer, Population and Society in 20th Century France (London, 1978), p. 222
45. N. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965 edn), p. 390; J. Benson, The Rise of Consumer Society in Britain, 1880–1980 (London, 1994), p. 88; Sampson, op. cit., p. 232
46. Fussell, op. cit., Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Eine Theorie des Tourismus (Frankfurt, 1963)
47. Stacey and Wilson, op. cit., p. 334; Joe Curry cited in Ellwood, op. cit., p. 208
48. Cited in Marshall, “The affluent society in perspective,” p. 341; on the convergence in reproduction patterns, D. V. Glass, “Fertility trends in Europe since the Second World War,” Population Studies, 22:1 (March 1968), pp. 103–47
49. K. D. Bracher, “Problems of parliamentary democracy in Europe,” Daedalus, 93: 1 (winter 1964), p. 185f; Habermas cited in R. Kearney, op. cit., p. 230
50. Cited in P. Ginsborg, op. cit., p. 248; Duhamel in Kuisel, op. cit., p. 11
51. Jean-Marie Domenach, “Le modèle américain,” Esprit (July-August 1960), p. 1221 cited in Kuisel, op. cit., p. 109
52. Pizzorno, “The individualistic mobilisation of Europe,” Daedalus, 93: 1 (winter 1964), p. 199
53. Cited in Kuisel, op. cit., p. 65
54. Pizzorno, op. cit.; R. Willett, The Americanisation of Germany, 1945–1949 (London, 1989), pp. 49–51
55. See D. Strinati, “The taste of America: Americanisation and popular culture in Britain,” in Strinati and S. Wagg (eds.), Come on Down? Popular Music and Culture in Postwar Britain (London, 1992), pp. 46f
56. On European role in the world economy, see D. Aldcroft, The European Economy, 1914–1990 (London, 1993 edn), ch. 5
57. P. Calamandrei, Questa nostra costituzione (Milan, 1995 edn), p. v
58. Boneschi, La grande illusione: i nostri anni sessanta (Milan, 1996), pp. 119–21
59. Gundle, op. cit., p. 589
60. G. Kaplan, Contemporary Western European Feminism (New York, 1992)
61. F. Thebaud (ed.), A History of Women: Toward a Cultural Identity in the 20th Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1994)
62. Austrian law in K. Schmidlechner, “Youth culture in the 1950s,” in G. Bischof, A. Pelinka and R. Steininger (eds.), Austria in the 1950s: Contemporary Austrian Studies, vol. 3 (New Brunswick, 1995), pp. 116–37; Elvis quotes from U. Poiger, “Rock ‘n’ roll, female sexuality and the Cold War battle over German identities,” Journal of Modern History, 68: 3 (September 1996), pp. 577–617
63. R. Dorner, “Halbstark,” in Bikini: Die Fünfziger Jahre, p. 164; S. Piccone Stella, “ ‘Rebels without a cause’: Male youth in Italy around 1960,” History Workshop Journal, 38 (1994), pp. 157–74
64. Bogdanor and Skidelsky, op. cit., pp. 300–314
65. Boneschi, op. cit., p. 319
66. G. Statera, Death of a Utopia: The Development and Decline of Student Movements in Europe (New York, 1975), pp. 78–89
67. S. Khilnani, Arguing Revolution: The Intellectual Left in Postwar France (New Haven, Conn., 1993), p. 122
68. Figures from G. Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945–2000 (London, 1995), p. 259; RAF in Linke Liste (eds.), Die Mythen knacken: Materialen wider ein Tabu (Frankfurt, 1987), passim
69. Cited in H. Fassmann and R. Münz (eds.), European Migration in the Late 20th Century: Historical Patterns, Actual Trends and Social Implications (Aldershot, Hants., 1994), p. 3
70. J. F. Hollifield, Immigrants, Markets and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge, Mass., 1992)
71. R. King (ed.), Mass Migrations in Europe: The Legacy and the Future (London, 1993)
72. Cesarani, op. cit., p. 70
73. J. Salt and H. Clout (eds.), Migration in Postwar Europe: Geographical Essays (Oxford, 1976), 34; Ginsborg, op. cit., p. 219
74. D. Hiro, Black British, White British: A History of Race Relations in Britain (London, 1991 edn), p. 51
75. See generally, P. Rich, Race and Empire in British Politics (Cambridge, 1990 edn)
76. King, op. cit., p. 96; Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 171–4
77. S. Collinson, Beyond Borders: West European Migration Policy and the Twenty-first Century (London, 1993), pp. 92–6; A. Nocon, “A reluctant welcome? Poles in Britain in the 1940s,” Oral History (spring 1996), p. 81
78. Figures from Fassmann and Munz, op. cit., p. 7; Minority Rights Group, Race and Law in Britain and the United States (London, 1983 edn), pp. 11–13; Nocon, op. cit., p. 85
10: THE SOCIAL CONTRACT in CRISIS
1. R. Musil (tr. E. Wilkins and E. Kaiser), The Man without Qualities, vol. 1 (London, 1982), p. 8
2. C. Maier, “The politics of inflation in the 20th century,” in his In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy (Cambridge, 1987), p. 223
3. On the factors behind the crisis of the early 1970s, see N. Kaldor, The Scourge of Monetarism (Oxford, 1985, 2nd edn), pp. xi-xii; Maddison, Phases of Capitalist Development (Oxford, 1982), pp. 133–42; C. Allsopp, “Inflation,” in A. Boltho (ed.), The European Economy: Growth and Crisis (Oxford, 1982), pp. 72–104
4. Allsopp, op. cit., p. 79
5. R. Mishra, The Welfare State in Capitalist Society (Toronto, 1990), ch. 3
6. Kaldor, The Scourge of Monetarism, p. xx; Vaizey cited in R. Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think-Tanks and the Economic Counter-Revolution, 1931–1983 (London, 1995), p. 229
7. Kalecki, “Political consequences of full employment,” op. cit.; Kaldor, op. cit., p. xii
8. I. Gilmour, Dancing with Dogma: Britain under Thatcherism (London, 1992), p. 60
9. ibid., p. 131
10. R. Levitas, “Competition and compliance: the utopias of the New Right,” in Levitas (ed.), The Ideology of the New Right (Oxford, 1986); S. Jenkins, Accountable to None: The Tory Nationalization of Britain (London, 1995)
11. P. Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State? Reagan, Thatcher and the Politics of Retrenchment (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 147–9; N. Barr et al., The State of Welfare: The Welfare State in Britain since 1974 (Oxford, 1991), pp. 339–40
12. K. van Kersbergen, Social Capitalism: A Study of Christian Democracy and the Welfare State (London, 1995)
13. H. Döring, “Public perceptions of the proper role of the state,” West European Politics, 17: 1 (January 1994), pp. 1–11
14. G. Baglioni and C. Crouch (eds.), European Industrial Relations: The Challenge of Flexibility (London, 1990)
15. J. Vickers and V. Wright, “The politics of industrial privatisation in Western Europe: an overview,” West European Politics, 11 (1988), pp. 1–30
16. V. Wright, “Reshaping the state: implications for public administration,” West European Politics, 17: 1 (January 1994), pp. 102–33
17. W. Merkel, “After the golden age: is social democracy doomed to decline?” in C. Lemke and G. Marks (eds.), The Crisis of Socialism in Europe (Durham, NC, 1992), pp. 136–70
18. M. Sharp, “Changing industrial structures in Western Europe,” in D. Dyker (ed.), The European Economy (London, 1992), pp. 233–55
19. Ginsborg, op. cit., p. 405
20. T. Blackwell and J. Seabrook, Talking Work: An Oral History (London, 1996), p. 201; May Day badges in Therborn, European Modernity, op. cit., p. 237
21. Therborn, op. cit., p. 57
22. A. B. Atkinson, Incomes and the Welfare State: Essays on Britain and Europe (Cambridge, 1995), p. 28
23. J. Ardagh, op. cit., pp. 114–15
24. Gilmour, op. cit., p. 134; Thatcher cited in Guardian, 21 July 1996; Atkinson, op. cit., p. 39
25. N. Christie, Crime Control as Industry: Towards GULAGS, Western Style (London, 1994 edn)
26. Cited in V. Ruggiero. M. Ryan and J. Sim (eds.), West European Penal Systems: A Critical Anatomy (London, 1995), pp. 40, 169
27. B. A. Hudson, Penal Policy and Social Justice (London, 1993), p. 68
28. P. O’Brien, “Migration and its risks,” International Migration Review, 30: 4 (1996), pp. 1067–77
29. Blackwell and Seabrook, op. cit., p. 123; “Ethnic minority children ‘still suffer racism daily,’ ” Guardian, 23 July 1996
30. “Publishers bow to colour bar on children’s books,” Observer, 27 October 1996
31. M. Kohn, The Race Gallery: The Return of Racial Science (London, 1995); N. Abadan-Unat, “Turkish migration to Europe,” in R. Cohen (ed.), The Cambridge Survey of World Migration (Cambridge, 1995), p. 281
32. Cited in Joly, op. cit., pp. 118–19
33. Y. Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago, 1994)
34. Cited in Ginsborg, op. cit., p. 424; Harvey, op. cit., p. 40
35. Therborn, op. cit., p. 268
36. Ardagh, op. cit., pp. 95–6
37. Cited in Sachs, op. cit., pp. 97, 200–202; Guardian, 21 August 1996, citing the National Travel Survey
38. A. Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge, 1991), ch. 7: “The emergence of life politics,” quote from p. 225
39. Ardagh, op. cit., p. 165
40. C. Haste, Rules of Desire: Sex in Britain, World War 1 to the Present (London, 1994), p. 235
41. F. Mort, Cultures of Consumption: Masculinities and Social Space in Late 20th Century Britain (London, 1996), pp. 16, 25
42. Cited in Strinati and Wagg, op. cit.
43. The Guardian, 19 August 1996
44. Musil, op. cit., p. 8
45. Council of Europe, Disillusionment with Democracy: Political Parties, Participation and Non-Participation in Democratic Institutions in Europe (Colchester, 1993)
46. Cited in the Independent on Sunday, 21 July 1996
11: SHARKS AND DOLPHINS:
THE COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM
1. Cited by B. Geremek, “Between hope and despair,” in S. Graubard (ed.), Eastern Europe … Central Europe … Europe (Boulder, Colo., 1991), pp. 95–113, cited on p. 103
2. Cited by Misiunas and Taagepera, The Baltic States: Years of Dependency, 1940–1990 (Berkeley, Calif., 1993 edn), p. 202
3. J. Rothschild, Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe since World War 2 (Oxford, 1989), p. 221
4. Cited by T. Garton Ash, The Uses of Adversity (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 180–81
5. B. Kaminski, The Collapse of State Socialism: The Case of Poland (Princeton, NJ, 1991), p. 3
6. Growth rates from K. Dawisha, Eastern Europe, Gorbachev and Reform: The Great Challenge (Cambridge, 1990 edn), p. 169
7. M. Bernstam, “Trends in the Soviet population,” pp. 185–214, and N. Eberstadt, “Health of an empire: poverty and social progress in the CMEA bloc,” pp. 221–55 in H. Rowen and C. Wolf (eds.), The Future of the Soviet Empire (New York, 1987)
8. A. Shub, An Empire Loses Hope (London, 1971), p. 109; D. N. Nelson (ed.), Communism and the Politics of Inequality (Toronto, 1983); R. Laba, The Roots of Solidarity: A Political Sociology of Poland’s Working-Class Democratization (Princeton, NJ, 1991), pp. 118–19; P. Hauslohner, “Gorbachev’s social contract,” Soviet Economy, 3 (1987), pp. 54–89, and J. McAdams, “Crisis in the Soviet empire: three ambiguities in search of a prediction,” Comparative Politics, 20: 1 (October 1987), pp. 107–18; S. Miskiewicz, “Social and economic rights in Eastern Europe,” in G. R. Urban (ed.), Social and Economic Rights in the Soviet Bloc (New Brunswick, NJ, 1988), p. 98
