Projections, page 27
evidence that disease symptoms are more common and strong in city dwellers: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3494055/.
CHAPTER 6: CONSUMMATION
cognitive and behavioral therapies can help in anorexia nervosa: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6181276/.
Medications are used not as cures, not to strike at the heart of the disease: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418625/.
then eating disorders together show the highest death rates of any psychiatric disease: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2907776/.
the diversity of genes that can be involved, as with many psychiatric disorders: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5581217/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6097237/.
Controlling the walking rhythms of the brainstem and spinal cord: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5937258/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4844028/.
the first optogenetic control of free mammalian behavior was in the hypothalamus: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6744371/.
cause the hunger or thirst behaviors, actually driving the consumption of food or water: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723384/.
specific social cells could suppress feeding, driving a resistance, even in naturally hungry mice: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6447429/.
When a mouse is fully water-sated but the deep thirst neurons are optogenetically driven: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6711472.
entorhinal cortex and hippocampus, two structures involved in navigation and memory: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4w36z6rj.
a human subject is asked to sit quietly and think of nothing in particular, to simply be with one’s self: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1157105/.
CHAPTER 7: MORO
infarcts, spots of dead tissue that are the outcome of strokes, can be detected by computed tomography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_dementia.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can show the small vessel blockade of vascular dementia: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3405254/.
350 million years ago, when the first air-breathing fishes emerged onto land: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3903263/.
global collapse in human populations bottoming out only fifty thousand years ago: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5161557/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4381518/.
the few medications available only slightly slow the steady progression of the disease: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6309083/.
anhedonia in senior populations with cognitive impairment: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2575050; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4326597/.
the greater the accumulated volume of those lacunae in white matter: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2575050/.
valence of release from anxiety is set in part by projections from the BNST to reward circuitry: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6690364/.
absent everything but the optogenetic reactivation of a few of the fear-memory neurons: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3331914/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6737336/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4825678/.
synaptic strength changes indeed can store memories in an automatic way: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopfield_network; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backpropagation.
synaptic strength changes of the right kind can happen in the real world: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693150/; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867400804845?via%3Dihub; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693149/.
Both effects are plausibly useful for memory storage, based on the theoretical work: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5318375/.
a connection from one part of the brain to another can be made light-sensitive, and then high- or low-frequency light pulses can be provided: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154022/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3775282/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6744370/.
selective effects on behavior can be exerted by projection-specific synaptic strength changes: https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:38251; https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:26937; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210354/.
Projections fundamentally embody how effectively different parts of the brain can engage with each other, whether in health or disease: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4069282/.
interregional connectivity strength predicts interregional activity correlations: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/422477v2.
anhedonia for music in human beings: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5135354/.
brain region representing hierarchies of kinship relationships: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-16489-x/.
gene expression patterns that determine how cellular diversity and axon guidance implement brain wiring: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6086934/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6447408/; https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.31.016972v2; https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.07.02.184051v1; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5292032/.
the Moro reflex: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moro_reflex.
EPILOGUE
the very same brainstem tumor that had grown in the little girl with eyes misaligned: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5891832; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5462626; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6214371.
the last Neanderthal may have been also the last survivor of a wave of modern humans: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4933530/; https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/687368v1.
exploring how the light-gated protein called channelrhodopsin actually works: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723383/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6340299/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6317992/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4160518/.
research into microbial light responses over the past 150 years: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723383/.
like the performance artist Joan Jonas said about her art in 2018: https://twitter.com/KyotoPrize/status/1064378354168606721.
depending on the study or population, from 1 to 7 percent: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK55333/.
An easy explanation is that extinction follows very quickly from technology: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_paradox.
There is a heritable component: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6309228/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5048197/.
linked to sociopathy or aggression: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430409/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6274606/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6433972/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5796650/.
a frenzy of violent aggression toward another mouse: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3075820/.
the fascinating domain of the philosophical treatise: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627313011355?via%3Dihub.
In 2020, recording the activity of cells broadly across mouse and human brains: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7553818/.
control of cells by type—the workhorse of optogenetics for its first fifteen years: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5296409/.
but also allowing control of activity in many single cells, or individually specified neurons: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5734860/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3518588/.
Now we can pick, at will, tens or hundreds of single cells for optogenetic control: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6447429/; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6711485; https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/394999v1.
we can pick the cells that normally respond to vertical (but not horizontal) stripes: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6711485.
new life has even been breathed into philosophical thought experiments: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%27s_thought_experiments.
PERMISSIONS/CREDITS
Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to reprint previously published material:
The Edna St. Vincent Millay Society c/o The Permissions Company, LLC: “Epitaph for the Race of Man: X” from Collected Poems by Edna St. Vincent Millay, copyright © 1934, 1962 by Edna St. Vincent Millay and Norma Millay Ellis. Reprinted by permission of The Permissions Company, LLC on behalf of Holly Peppe, Literary Executor, The Edna St. Vincent Millay Society, www.millay.org.
Faber and Faber Limited: Excerpt from “Stars at Tallapoosa” from Collected Poems by Wallace Stevens. Reprinted by permission of Faber and Faber Limited.
Indiana University Press: Excerpt from Metamorphoses by Ovid, translated by Rolfe Humphries, copyright © 1955 by Indiana University Press and copyright renewed 1983 by Winifred Davies. Reprinted with permission of Indiana University Press.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Karl Deisseroth is professor of bioengineering and psychiatry at Stanford University. He received his undergraduate degree summa cum laude at Harvard, and his MD/PhD at Stanford, where he completed psychiatry training and is board-certified by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology. Deisseroth is known for creating and applying new technologies for studying the brain, including optogenetics—for which he was the winner of the 2018 Kyoto Prize and the 2020 Heineken Prize, among many other major international awards. Deisseroth has five children and lives near Stanford University, where he teaches and directs Stanford’s undergraduate degree in bioengineering, and treats patients with mood disorders and autism. Deisseroth helped craft the multibillion-dollar ongoing U.S. national BRAIN Initiative, and is a member of the National Academy of Medicine, the National Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Engineering.
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Karl Deisseroth, Projections
