The Odyssey (Oxford World's Classics Hardback Collection), page 50
43 to the lord Poseidon: there is great irony in Athena being asked to pray to the very god who is dead set against Odysseus’ return.
91 Amphitrite: one of the Nereids (sea-nymphs), used by Homer to represent the sea itself.
109 Ajax: two Ajaxes fought for the Greeks at Troy. This one, the son of Telamon, was the second-best warrior after Achilles. When Achilles died, his arms were awarded to Odysseus rather than Ajax, causing the angry hero to commit suicide. For the other Ajax, see note to 3.135.
110 Patroclus: Achilles’ closest friend, killed by the Trojan prince Hector.
112 Antilochus: he died defending his father against the Ethiopian king Memnon, an ally of the Trojans.
135 deadly anger: Ajax, son of Oileus, raped the Trojan princess Cassandra within Athena’s shrine at Troy, and the Greeks failed to punish him; the goddess took her revenge by killing many of them on their way home.
136 the two sons of Atreus: Agamemnon and Menelaus.
167 son of Tydeus: Diomedes, one of the most skilled and successful warriors at Troy.
178 Geraestus: the most southerly point of the island Euboea.
190 Philoctetes: a festering wound from a snakebite led the Greeks to abandon Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos, where he spent the ten years of the Trojan War; the hero was finally healed and helped to sack Troy, killing the Trojan prince Paris, Helen’s ‘husband’.
191 Idomeneus: leader of the Cretan forces at Troy; cf. 14.237.
197 Orestes: Agamemnon’s brave and loyal son serves as an exemplar for Telemachus; cf. 1.298–302.
222 for all to see: on Athena’s particular affection for Odysseus, see section ‘Mortals and immortals’ in the Introduction.
267 a singer: acting as a chaperon to Clytemnestra. In a poem marked by praise of bards and singers (see section ‘The Odyssey and early Greek epic’ in the Introduction), his killing by Aegisthus emphasizes the latter’s villainy.
288 Malea: on the south-easternmost promontory of the Peloponnese, where Agamemnon (4.514) and Odysseus (9.80) are also hit by storms.
326 Lacedaemon: Sparta.
367 Caucones: a people in the western Peloponnese.
378 Tritogeneia: an epithet of Athena, probably meaning ‘true-born’ and stressing her legitimacy despite her unusual (motherless) birth from the head of Zeus.
408 gleamed with oil: the king’s seat is anointed as a symbol of its sanctity.
488 Pherae: a town midway between Pylos and Sparta.
BOOK FOUR
Telemachus and Peisistratus arrive in Sparta, where Menelaus’ family is celebrating a double wedding (1–14). They are welcomed, bathed, and fed, and Telemachus is amazed by the splendour of Menelaus’ palace (15–75). Menelaus speaks of his eight years of wandering after the fall of Troy, and his grief for Odysseus causes Telemachus to weep (76–119). Helen makes a grand entrance and recognizes Telemachus immediately (120–54). Peisistratus confirms this, and when all (hosts and guests) weep at remembrance of their own suffering, Helen produces a drug that banishes their grief (155–232). Helen and Menelaus offer contrasting tales of Odysseus’ exploits at Troy (233–305). The next day Menelaus tells of his adventures off the coast of Egypt, revealing that, according to the Old Man of the Sea, Odysseus had been detained by the nymph Calypso (306–586). As Telemachus prepares to leave Sparta, the scene changes to Ithaca, where the suitors discover Telemachus’ absence and plot to ambush him on his return (587–674). When Penelope learns of all this herself, she is comforted, first by Eurycleia, then by a phantom sent in the night by Athena (675–841). Meanwhile, the suitors prepare their ambush (842–7).
10 Megapenthes: the name (‘great grief’) underlines the fact that he is not a true-born son but the offspring of a slave-woman, and Menelaus’ marriage to Helen has not provided him with a legitimate son and heir. The name also expresses Menelaus’ unhappiness at Helen’s elopement with Paris and prepares us for the uneasy relationship between them. For the poem’s presentation of their marriage as a foil to that of Odysseus and Penelope, see section ‘Marriage and family life’ in the Introduction.
84 Sidonians: Sidon was a major city on the coast of Phoenicia (mod. Lebanon).
84 Erembi: their exact location is unknown.
187 Antilochus: see note to 3.112.
232 Paieon: the god of healing, later identified with Apollo.
261 with grief: for the very different accounts of Helen’s attitude given by her and Menelaus, see section ‘Marriage and family life’ in the Introduction.
276 Deiphobus: Paris’ brother, who became Helen’s new Trojan partner after his death.
343 Philomeleides: a king of Lesbos, who challenged those arriving in his territory to a wrestling match.
499 Ajax: the inferior warrior of that name (see notes to 3.109 and 135), here punished by Poseidon.
500 Gyrae: ancient scholars identified various possible locations, including the islands of Mykonos and Tenos.
515 Malea: see note to 3.288.
563 the plain of Elysium: Menelaus’ blessed immortality, an exceptional honour, is not due to any achievement of his own, but to his relationship with Helen, as the daughter of Zeus, and is another marker of the unusual power dynamic between them.
762 the aegis: see note to 3.42.
762 Atrytone: an obscure title of Athena, probably ‘the Unwearied (or Invincible) One’.
798 Pherae: a town in Thessaly.
BOOK FIVE
The gods meet in assembly and Athena complains again about Odysseus’ predicament (1–27). Zeus sends Hermes to Calypso with instructions that Odysseus must be released (28–42). Arriving on Calypso’s island, Hermes admires its fertility and is kindly received by the goddess (43–91). When Hermes reports Zeus’ demand, Calypso angrily criticizes the gods for their double standards, but reluctantly agrees to let Odysseus go (92–147). Odysseus is sceptical of Calypso’s motives, and makes her swear an oath that she is not trying to trick him (148–91). Her offer of immortality is tactfully declined by Odysseus, and they make love one final time (192–227). With Calypso’s help, Odysseus builds a raft, sets sail, and on the eighteenth day is within sight of the land of the Phaeacians (228–81). Poseidon spots him, however, and whips up a huge storm that smashes Odysseus’ raft (282–332). The sea-goddess Ino takes pity on Odysseus and helps him survive the storm (333–81), and Athena stops the winds and guides Odysseus ashore (382–473). Exhausted, Odysseus hides beneath a pair of olive-bushes, covers himself with leaves, and falls into a deep sleep (474–93).
1 Tithonus: a Trojan prince, abducted by the goddess of the dawn to be her lover (cf. Orion at line 121 below). They had a son together, the Ethiopian king Memnon (see note to 3.112). The goddess asked Zeus for immortality for Tithonus but forgot to ask for eternal youth as well, so that he shrivelled away to a piping husk (the origin of the cicada).
34 Scheria: the magical kingdom of the Phaeacians. Scholars ancient and modern have (in literal-minded fashion) proposed a variety of locations, the most popular in antiquity being the island of Corfu.
43 slayer of Argus: see note to 1.38.
50 Pieria: a mountain north of Olympus.
93 ambrosia … nectar: food of the gods.
108 affront to Athena: see note to 1.135.
121 Orion: he was transformed into the constellation after his death.
122 a grudge against her: Dawn offended Aphrodite by sleeping with her lover, Ares.
126 Iasion: as a result of their union, Demeter gave birth to the god Wealth. Zeus’ resentment is unfair, Calypso implies, since male gods have sex with mortals all the time.
161 I am willing: Calypso neglects to mention Zeus’ command and makes her offer sound like spontaneous generosity.
185 Styx: a river of the underworld.
272 Pleiades: a cluster of seven stars (said to be daughters of Atlas), part of the Taurus constellation.
272 Boötes: the ‘Oxherder’ constellation, which includes the bright star Arcturus.
273 Bear … Wain: the Ursa Major (Great Bear) constellation. Appropriately, the Bear keeps a close watch on Orion, the hunter.
275 no share … Ocean: the Greeks thought of the sky as a dome covering the round flat earth, which was in turn surrounded by the river Ocean, and here the Bear is presented as the only constellation which does not sink into Ocean once it has crossed the sky.
283 Solymi: a people inhabiting ancient Lycia (an area in south-west Turkey).
310 the dead son of Peleus: Achilles; for the battle over his corpse, see 24.36–42.
381 Aegae: Poseidon’s cult at Aegae is also mentioned in the Iliad (8.203; 13.21–2). There were several places called Aegae, but the likeliest for Poseidon’s palace is a headland opposite the south-eastern corner of Lesbos.
422 Amphitrite: see note to 3.91.
BOOK SIX
As Odysseus sleeps, Athena goes to the palace of King Alcinous and appears to his daughter Nausicaa in a dream, urging her to wash clothes in preparation for her marriage (1–47). Nausicaa wakes up and asks her father for a wagon to transport the laundry (48–70). After washing the clothes, she and her maidservants play ball on the shore (71–109). Awakened by their cries, Odysseus supplicates Nausicaa, asking for some clothes and directions to the city (110–85). Nausicaa agrees, calms her terrified maids, and admires the washed and clothed Odysseus, whose appearance is enhanced by Athena (186–250). Nausicaa outlines her plan: Odysseus is to enter the city after the women so as to avoid gossip, and should then make for the palace, where he is to supplicate her mother, Queen Arete (251–315). Odysseus follows them to the outskirts of the city and waits, praying to Athena (316–31).
4 Hypereia: a fictional place, whose name (meaning ‘the land beyond’) suits its remote setting.
8 Scheria: see note to 5.34.
103 Taygetus … Erymanthus: mountain ranges in the Peloponnese.
106 Leto: mother of Artemis (and Apollo).
182 harmony of minds: for the importance of this theme, see section ‘Marriage and family life’ in the Introduction.
324 Atrytone: see note to 4.762.
BOOK SEVEN
As Nausicaa arrives home, Odysseus sets out for the palace; shrouded in a mist, he is guided by Athena, who is disguised as a Phaeacian girl. She explains the royal family’s genealogy and instructs Odysseus to approach Queen Arete (1–77). Marvelling at the scale and richness of the palace and its estate, Odysseus arrives unseen and immediately supplicates Arete, asking for an escort back to his homeland (78–152). He is welcomed, fed, and promised safe passage home the following day (153–225). Arete, however, recognizes her handiwork in the clothes worn by Odysseus, and asks him where he got them. Still concealing his identity, Odysseus replies with an abbreviated account of his wanderings, culminating in his meeting with Nausicaa, whose idea that they not enter the city together (lest it provoke gossip) Odysseus politely pretends was his own (226–307). Alcinous hints that Odysseus might marry Nausicaa (should he choose to stay), but repeats the promise to send him on his way the following day. Odysseus prays to Zeus for a safe homecoming and all go to bed (308–47).
9 Apeira: meaning ‘the boundless (or indeterminate) land’, a fictional place (like Hypereia, the Phaeacians’ original home: see note to 6.4).
66 made her his wife: Alcinous marries his niece. Marriage to an uncle was permitted in ancient Greek society (as was marriage to half-brothers by the same father or to cousins). With no father or brother living, an unmarried girl like Arete would in any case pass into the guardianship of her nearest male relative, who here also happens to be Alcinous.
81 Erechtheus: a mythical king of Athens, who was worshipped together with Athena in a joint temple (the Erechtheum) on the Athenian acropolis.
324 Rhadamanthys … Gaia’s son: Rhadamanthys, son of Zeus and Europa, entered Elysium (see note to 4.563) and was revered as a wise judge of the dead in the underworld. Tityus, by contrast, was a notorious villain, who tried to rape Leto, and whose punishment in Hades (two vultures tear at his liver) has already been witnessed by Odysseus himself (see 11.576–81). The story linking them here is otherwise unknown.
BOOK EIGHT
The next day Alcinous summons the Phaeacians, who help prepare a ship for Odysseus and join in entertaining him before his departure (1–61). The blind bard Demodocus sings of the quarrel between Odysseus and Achilles, moving Odysseus to tears (62–95). Alcinous notices and calls for games to begin instead, and the Phaeacians compete in running, wrestling, long jump, discus, and boxing (96–130). Laodamas, one of Alcinous’ sons, challenges Odysseus to compete, but he firmly refuses (131–57). Euryalus then insults Odysseus and is forcefully rebuked. Odysseus shows his strength by hurling the heaviest discus further than anyone, and angrily challenges all-comers (158–233). The situation is defused by Alcinous, who calls for dance and song (234–65). Demodocus sings of the adultery of Ares and Aphrodite, and of its discovery and punishment by Hephaestus (266–369). After more dancing displays, Alcinous calls on the Phaeacian leaders to bring gifts for Odysseus, and Euryalus apologizes personally to Odysseus (370–415). Alcinous and Arete add their own presents, placing all the gifts in a great chest, which Odysseus seals (416–48). Odysseus is bathed and dressed and says farewell to Nausicaa (449–68). At Odysseus’ request, Demodocus sings the tale of the Trojan horse (469–520). When Odysseus weeps once again, Alcinous asks him to explain exactly who he is and where he comes from (521–86).
62 the worthy bard: for the poem’s positive depiction of bards, see section ‘The Odyssey and early Greek epic’ in the Introduction.
78 the best of the Achaeans: Agamemnon is pleased by their quarrel presumably because the oracle predicted it would herald the Greeks’ ultimate victory at Troy.
111 Acroneos: the Phaeacian youths are given names that express their preoccupation with seafaring: Acroneos (‘top ship’), Ocyalus (‘sea-swift’), Elatreus (‘rower’), etc.
219 Philoctetes: see note to 3.190.
288 Cytherean: an epithet of Aphrodite, who was born from the sea-foam on the shores of Cythera, an island off Cape Malea in the Peloponnese (see note to 3.288).
294 Sintians … harsh tongue: an obscure people, believed to be non-Greek-speaking Thracians who settled on the island of Lemnos. There was a major cult of Hephaestus on Lemnos, whose capital city was named Hephaestias.
393 a talent: a measure of weight, equivalent to around 26 or 38 kg in later systems of Greek coinage, but its exact size in Homer is unknown. In any case, Odysseus will here receive 13 talents in all, a considerable amount of gold.
481 paths of song: for the significance of this idea within the oral tradition of epic poetry, see section ‘The Odyssey and early Greek epic’ in the Introduction.
BOOK NINE
Odysseus reveals his identity and begins his story (1–38). Starting from Troy with twelve ships, he and his companions raid the Cicones in Thrace, but Odysseus’ crew ignore his orders to leave, leading to the loss of many men (39–61). A storm brings them to the land of the Lotus-eaters, where some eat the fruit of forgetfulness and have to be forced back on board (62–104). Reaching the land of the Cyclopes, they disembark on a nearby island, where they hunt and feast (105–69). Odysseus organizes a scouting party of twelve men and they enter the cave of Polyphemus, who is not at home. Odysseus’ men urge him to leave immediately, but he foolishly ignores them, hoping for guest-gifts from the Cyclops (170–230). Polyphemus returns, blocking the cave entrance with a huge rock, and when Odysseus supplicates him to remember the respect due to guests, the Cyclops kills and eats two of Odysseus’ crew for supper (231–306). With more men eaten for breakfast and dinner the next day, Odysseus hatches a plan: he gets Polyphemus drunk and tells him his name is ‘No-man’; the Cyclops falls into a drunken stupor, and Odysseus and his men blind him with a heated wooden stake; when the other Cyclopes ask what the problem is, Polyphemus replies ‘No-man is killing me’ and the Cyclopes simply go away (307–414). To escape from the cave Odysseus clings to the belly of Polyphemus’ favourite ram, having tied his men beneath some others, and they wait for the animals to be sent out to graze (416–61). As they sail off, Odysseus taunts Polyphemus repeatedly, ignoring his men’s attempts to restrain him, and rashly reveals his name, which enables Polyphemus to pray to his father Poseidon for vengeance (462–535). Returning to the nearby island where his ships are stationed, Odysseus prays in vain to Zeus for a safe voyage, and they sail away, lamenting their lost comrades (536–66).
26 the sun’s rising: the poet’s knowledge of the Ionian islands is vague, since Ithaca is neither low (it has high peaks) nor the most westerly. Scholars ancient and modern have tried to map these names onto the islands in the region, but there is no reason to expect geographical precision in a poem of this kind. Homer’s description is fictional, even if inspired by the island we know as Ithaca.
39 Cicones: allies of the Trojans from Ismarus in Thrace.
81 Cythera: see note to 8.288. This is the last real place to be mentioned, as Odysseus is now blown off the historical map into the realm of fantasy.
97 forgetting their journey home: the story-pattern (if one eats a certain food, one cannot return to normal life) is found in many cultures. Here the lotus plant threatens Odysseus’ entire mission, namely his return to family and kingdom.
106 the Cyclopes: savage one-eyed giants, with (at least in Polyphemus’ case) a penchant for cheese.
198 Ismarus: Maron was evidently spared by Odysseus during the raid on the Cicones (see 9.39–40).
209 twenty measures of water: ancient Greeks drank their wine diluted, usually one or two parts wine to three parts water, so Maron’s wine is exceptionally strong, making it well suited to its eventual purpose (intoxicating the Cyclops).
405 no mortal: there is an ingenious pun in the Greek here, since the expression used by the Cyclopes for ‘no mortal’ and ‘no one’ is ‘mē tis’, which evokes ‘mētis’, i.e. guile or cunning, one of the core characteristics of ‘Odysseus, man of many wiles’ (polymētis Odysseus). Odysseus has called himself Outis (No-man/Nobody), and Polyphemus lacks the verbal wit to evade his trap.
