The Rule of Laws, page 55
Shivaji, Historic Images / Alamy Stock Photo.
Taizong, painting by Yen Liben.
Tang dynasty exam paper, courtesy of the East Asian Library and the Gest Collection, Princeton University Library.
Pompeian fresco, The Yorck Project (2002) 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
Cicero, Bertel Thorvaldsen, 1799 copy of a Roman original, Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagan.
Papyrus, courtesy of The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library; Israel Antiquities Authority. Photo by Shai Halevi.
Baghdad library, Bibliothèque nationale de France
Jewish scholars, David Solomon Sassoon, ‘A History of the Jews in Baghdad’.
Alfonso X, Album / Alamy Stock Photo.
Charlemagne denarius, World Imaging.
Laws of Aethelstan, © The University of Manchester. Creative Commons Licence CC BY-NC 40.
King Alfred aestal, The Ashmolean Museum/Heritage Image Partnership Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo.
Thingvellir, courtesy of Nina Thorkelsdottir.
Grágás, The Arni Magnusson Institute for Icelandic Studies.
Russian Primary Chronicle, Sputnik/TopFoto.
Tatev monastery, Mirzoyan’s Ads and Marketing.
Geniza legal manual, © The University of Manchester. Creative Commons Licence CC BY-NC 40.
Algerian irrigation channels, Sergey Strelkov / Alamy Stock Photo.
Tindi, Moriz von Déchy.
Song banquet, Taipei, National Palace Museum.
Song hydraulic grain mill, Palace Museum, Beijing.
English commonplace book, © The University of Manchester. Creative Commons Licence CC BY-NC 40.
Manorial court roll, reproduced with permission from Lancashire Archives, Lancashire County Council, ref. DDHCL/7/56.
Lostwithiel Palace, Antiqua Print Gallery / Alamy Stock Photo.
Hans Hegenheim, Diebold Schilling, from the Lucerne chronicle, Zentralbibliothek Lucerne.
Kunigunde of Luxembourg, INTERFOTO / Alamy Stock Photo.
Iron ordeal, Stiftsbibliothek Lambach Cml LXXIII f64v.
Lenape wampum belt, FLHC A29 / Alamy Stock Photo.
Articles of Peace, Swem Special Collections Research Center, William and Mary Libraries.
Sir William Blackstone, Everett Collection Inc / Alamy Stock Photo.
“Collared!!”, by Tenniel. British satirical journal, Punch, 22nd October 1881.
Warren Hastings, Album / Alamy Stock Photo.
King Leopold II cartoon, by François Maréchal. Belgian satirical journal, Le Frondeur, 20th December 1884.
Nigerian court clerk, Pitt Rivers Museum: 1998.336.16.
Abu al-Sa’ud, by Mahmud ‘Abd al-Baqi. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Gift of George D. Pratt, 1925: 25.83.9.
Afghan qadi and mufti, Pitt Rivers Museum: 2013.3.1280 1960.
Ayatollah and Pope, UPI / Alamy Stock Photo.
Seyh Suleyman Kaslioglu, Rivers Museum: 2013.3.16322.
Ladakh, courtesy of the author.
Tibetan mediators, courtesy of the author.
INDEX
Abbas, Shah, 371
Abbasids, 133–140, 209
‘Abduh, Muhammad, 373
Abu Hanifa, 137
Accursius, 162
accusations, false accusations in China, 92, 250, 251
in the Islamic world, 129, 292
in the Lex Salica, 155
in medieval English procedures, 291, 305
in medieval European theory, 299–300, 302
in Mesopotamia, 21, 28
See also oaths and ordeals
Adams, John, 332
Adams, John Quincy, 345
‘adat, 230, 232, 362
administration of justice
in the American colonies, 325–326
among Armenians, 199, 202
among the Cairo Jews, 213–218
in China, 251–255
in colonial Africa, 358–361
in colonial India, 351–356
in early modern England, 327–328
in Iceland, 187–188
in India, 68, 205–208
in Ireland, 181
in the Islamic world, 131–132, 222–225
in medieval England, 266–273, 275–284
in medieval Europe, 153, 263–265
in Mesopotamia, 28–29, 31
in Rome, 103–04, 109–110, 120
in Rus, 193
in Tibet, 8–9, 397–398
administrative laws and rules
in China, 75, 81, 92, 240
under Daesh, 303
in medieval Europe, 152–153
See also oaths, ordeals, evidence
admiralty courts, 280–283, 284, 327
adultery. See sexual offences
advocates
in England, 168–169
in Rome, 109–110, 111–112. See also Cicero, orators
in Tibet, 398
aediles, in Rome, 101, 103, 108
Aethelberht, King, 154–155
Aethelred, King, laws of, 157
Aethelstan, King, laws of, 157, 295
Aetius, 148–149
Africa, sub-Saharan, 11, 349, 356–362, 364, 383, 385
chiefs in, 360–361
agriculture, laws on
Armenian, 200
in China, 86, 237
in colonial Africa, 361
in Iceland, 186
in Ireland, 178
Jewish, 126, 200
in Mesopotamia, 21–23, 25, 35
in the modern world, 429
Ain-i-Akbari, 351
al-Andalus, 130, 140, 141, 152
Alaric, 150. See also Breviarium Alaricianum
Alfonso X, 164
Alfred, King, laws of, 156–157, 164
Algeria, 225, 384
under colonialism, 356–358, 377
See also Kabylia
Ali, Muhammad, 370–371
Almohads, 141, 220
Almoravids, 141, 217
Althing, Thing (in Iceland) 184–187, 189
amercement, 302
Amdo. See Tibet
amnesties, for debt, 20, 24, 34, 92
analogy
in Islamic law (qiyas), 137
in Irish law, 180
Anglo-Saxons, 154–158, 164
arbitration
among diamond merchants, 412–414
in the modern world, 425, 434–436
See also mediation
Armenia, Armenian laws, 198–203
Arthashastra, 51, 56, 207
Asian values, 439
assault. See injury
assemblies
of Cairo Jews, 211, 291
in Daghestan, 227
of Germanic and Anglo-Saxon kings, 153, 155, 157
in Iran (Majlis), 374
in Ireland, 177
in Kabylia, 401–402
in Ladakh, 407
in Rome, 99–108, 110, 117, 118, 119, 122
assizes, in England, 267, 268, 319
of bread and beer, 269
Assyrians, 32, 41, 124
Athens, Athenians, 33–34, 99, 100
laws, 33–34
Ashoka, 51
Atatürk, Kemal, 373–374
Augustine, 154–155
Augustus, Emperor, 118
Australia, 356
awaqf, 135, 357, 377
Azande, poison ordeal amongst, 297
Aztec empire, 10, 340
Babylon, 23–32, 124–126, 211
Baghdad, 133–134, 209, 212, 215
banishment, expulsion, exile
in China, 76, 82
from the Diamond Dealers’ Club, 413
from English manors, 270
from English urban
neighbourhoods, 303
in Iceland, 188
from Jewish communities in Cairo, 215–216
in Tibet, 289
banking
Islamic, 381–382
international, 430
Banna, Hasan al-. See Muslim Brotherhood
battle. See trial by battle Beckett, Thomas, 166
bees, laws on
in Ireland, 178–179
in Rus, 194, 196
benefit of clergy, 302
Berbers. See Kabylia
bills of exchange, 216, 421
birch bark texts, in Rus, 192–193, 196, 198
Black Act, The, 303
Blackstone, Sir William, 330, 332–333, 338
blood money, 38
among Germanic tribes, 154
in Iceland, 187
in the Islamic world, 129, 292
in Tibet, 289, 396
blood punishment, 299, 301, 302, 306–309
Board of Grievances, 375–376
Bologna, 161–162, 167
Bonham’s Case, 322, 332
Book of Punishments, in Zhou China, 76
borough courts, in Britain, 275–276, 284, 319
borrowing, copying, inspiration, 448–449, 450
in Armenia, 199–200
in China, 237
of Hindu laws, 69–70
in the Islamic world, 131, 225–226
by the Israelites, 39–42
in medieval England, 272
in medieval Europe, 150–151, 154, 160–161, 163–164
in the Near East, 32–33
in Rome, 100
in Rus, 195
Bracton, Henry de, 167
Brahmanas, 49
Breton laws, 149
Breviarium Alaricianum, 150
British colonialism
in Africa, 359–362
in India, 347–356
in North America, 325–326, 328–330
Burgundian law codes, 150, 163
Byzantium, 152, 159, 190–192
church, 194, 195
laws, 175, 203, 280
Caecina, pro, 113–115
Calicut (Kozhikode), 1, 58, 59, 62
Cambyses, 33
canon law
in Armenian law, 202
in early modern England, 324
in France, 317, 364
in the Holy Roman Empire, 318
in Ireland, 178, 180, 182
in medieval England, 166
in medieval Europe, 162–163, 284
in Rus, 195, 197–198
capital punishment. See death penalty
capitularies, of Frankish kings, 153
Caracalla, Emperor, 119–120
Carolina, The, 317, 335
caste, in India, 45, 49, 54, 62, 65–68, 206–209, 308
in colonial India, 354, 363, 450
councils, 68, 207–208
casuistic form (of rules), 44, 170, 447
in Athens, 34
in India, 43–44, 56
in Islamic and Jewish laws, 37, 146
in medieval Europe and England, 157, 203
in Mesopotamia, 20, 21, 29, 32
in Roman laws, 100, 471
categories, legal, 5, 12–13, 449–451
in the Book of Leviticus, 6–7
in China, 71, 76, 82, 84, 93
in colonial India and Africa, 351, 354, 401
in India, 70
in Ireland, 178
in medieval Europe, 162, 178, 263–264, 272
in Mesopotamia, 43
censuses, 20, 80, 98, 283
Chancery, Court of, 319, 323, 327, 473
Chang’an. See Xian Charlemagne, Emperor, 153–154, 298
Charles I, 317, 328
Charter of the Forest, 278
Chile, Civil Code of, 364
church courts
in England, 166, 273–274, 319, 327
in Europe, 152, 162, 164
in Rus, 190, 193, 195
Cicero, 110–117
Cilicia, 199, 201
civil law. See ius civile, Roman law in Europe
civilization
as an aspiration 9, 119, 150, 151, 226, 450, 453
and colonialism, 342, 346, 349–350, 355–356, 358–360, 452
and human rights, 439
as inspiration, 7, 41, 69
law as an aspect of, 121, 399
law as a map for, vision of, 14, 122, 171, 189, 450, 453
modern ideals of, 371
civitas, 119
class, social, 12, 449–450
in India, 48–49, 53. See also caste
in Ireland, 179–181
in medieval and early modern England, 167–168, 331
in medieval Europe, 161–162, 264, 293
in Mesopotamia, 27, 29, 30 43
in Rome, 99–101. See also patrician, plebeian, nobilitas
in Tibet, 8. See also status
classification. See categories cleanliness, 6–7, 53, 123, 124, 126, 194, 197
Clive, Robert, 347
Clovis, 149, 150, 152
laws of. See Lex Salica
Cnut, King, laws of, 157–158
Code Civil (French), 336–337, 364, 401
Code of Gentoo Laws, 352
Codex Theresiana, 336
codification
in colonial India, 355, 367
in Egypt, 33
of feudal law. See Lehnrecht
in France, 336–337
in the Islamic world, 375–377, 386, 388
by Justinian. See Corpus Iuris Civilis
movement for, in Europe, 169, 265, 316, 333
of shari‘a, 377–378, 383, 385
worldwide, 364
Coke, Sir Edward, 322–324, 342, 454
Institutes of the Laws of England, 323–324, 326, 329, 332
See also Bonham, Commendams
Colebrook, H. T. 353
Collected Models of Clarity and Lucidity, 247
comity of nations, 364
Commendams, Case of, 323
Commentaries on the Laws of England. See Blackstone
common law, English
in medieval England, 87, 166–169, 266–268
in early modern England, 319–324, 327–328, 330–333
in India, 352, 354–355
in North American colonies, 325326, 328–330
in the US, 412
Common Pleas, Court of, 319, 322
common property, obligations
in China, 81
in Daghestan, 228, 230, 449
in Iceland, 185
in India, 208, 254
in Kabylia, 402
in Ladakh, 407
in medieval England, 268, 270
in the Touat, 225
compurgation, 274, 290, 291, 293
Condorcet, Nicolas de, 349–350
confession
among the Cairo Jews, 215
in China, 83, 87, 92, 238, 251, 253
in medieval Europe, 295–296, 305–310
Confucius, 77, 306, 469
Confucian ideas, 78, 86, 89, 93, 95, 238, 240, 245, 247, 248, 255
Confucian scholars, 78, 79, 80, 86
conscience, in criminal trials, 296, 299, 302, 304, 305, 308
consensus. See mediation
consilium plebis, in Rome. See assemblies
Constantinople, 203, 210, 316, 346, 369
constitutions
in Athens, 34
of colonial India, 350–351
in Egypt, 379–380
of England, Britain, 324, 349
in Iran, 374
in the Islamic world, 138
monastic, 195, 198
of Olympic committees, 435
in postcolonial states, 363, 377, 384, 385
Roman, 101, 472
in Saudi Arabia, 376
village, 5, 393, 405, 407
US, 9, 441
consuls, Roman, 99–102, 104–108, 118
contracts
among the Cairo Jews, 211, 213, 214, 216–218
in China, 75, 94, 236–40, 256
in India, 47, 55, 207
in Ireland, 178
in the Islamic world, 129, 136, 144, 378, 382
in international law, 425, 432
in medieval England, 274
among merchants, 274, 413–414
in Mesopotamia, 23, 43
in Rome, 104, 116, 119
coronation oaths, charters, 156, 165, 170, 261
copying. See borrowing
Corpus Iuris Civilis, 121, 122, 151–152
Codex, 151, 160
Institutions, 151, 263, 336
Digest, 151, 162, 263
in early modern Europe, 318, 335
in medieval England, 167
in medieval Europe, 159–163, 317
corruption, 453
in China, 79, 86, 247, 248, 254, 257, 306
in the East India Company, 348
in the Islamic world, 139, 309
in Kabylia, 404
in Mesopotamia, 19
in Rome, 103, 109–113, 452, 472
cosmological order, 171, 287, 311, 451
in China, 71, 93, 452
in India 4, 45, 70, 93
See also natural law
Court of Arbitration for Sport, 435–436
coutumes, Coutume de Paris, 317, 335
crimes against humanity. See humanity
cross-examination, interrogation, 83, 87, 88, 222, 257, 306
cultural property. See property
cumal (Irish measure), 180
custumals, 263
Cyrus the Great, 32–33, 123–124
Daesh, 383
Daghestan, 226–232
Danelaw, 165
Daoist priests, 95, 236, 244, 246, 257
Darius, 11, 33
Davies, Sir John, 322
death penalty
among the Cairo Jews, 215
in China, 73, 82, 91, 922, 238, 253
in the laws of Exodus, 36, 37
in India, 307
in the Islamic world, 131, 310
in medieval and early modern Europe, 303, 305
in Mesopotamia, 13, 28, 29
in Rome, 100
debt, debt bondage, 449
amnesty. See amnesty in Athens, 34
among the Cairo Jews, 215–216
in China, 238, 240–241, 243, 256, 258
among diamond merchants, 345, 412, 413
in the laws of Exodus, 36, 39, 42
in Iceland, 187
in India, 48
in Ireland, 177, 181
in medieval England, 275, 276, 319
in medieval Europe, 153
in Mesopotamia, 20, 21, 24, 26
in Rome, 99–104
in Rus, 192–193
decimviri, 100
Declaration of Independence, 332
Decretum, of Gratian, 163
democracy
in Iceland, 185, 189
modern ideals of, 14, 315, 432, 452
despotism, ideas about, 2, 13, 452, 455
in India, 357–350, 355, 356, 363
Deuteronomy, Book of, 39
dharma, 45, 49, 52
of kings and judges, 56–59, 70, 307
and the rule of law, 453
Dharmasattas, 69
Dharmasutras, 53
diamond traders, 410–413
discipline, ideas about, 4, 6, 13, 170–171
in China, 71, 72, 80, 95, 96, 235, 238, 248, 259, 451, 455
in modern Europe, 338, 340
