An Imperial Possession, page 74
Eastern Devon
General works: A. P. Fitzpatrick et al., Prehistoric and Roman Sites in East Devon: the A30 Honiton to Exeter Improvement DBFO Scheme 1996–9 (2 vols, Salisbury, 1999); F. Griffith, Devon’s Past. An aerial view (Exeter, 1988); H. Riley and R. Eilson-North, The Field Archaeology of Exmoor (Swindon, 2001); C. Thomas, ‘The character and origin of Roman Dumnonia’, in Thomas, Rural Settlement (1966); M. Todd, Roman Devon (Exeter, 2001).
Specific sites: R. Silvester, ‘Excavations at Honeyditches villa, Seaton, in 1978’, Proceedings of Devon Arch. Soc. 39 (1981).
Cornwall and western Devon
General works: N. Johnson and P. Rose, ‘Defended settlement in Cornwall – an illustrated discussion’, in Miles, The Romano-British Countryside (1982); H. Quinnell, ‘Cornwall during the Iron Age and the Roman Period’, Cornish Archaeology 25 (1986); C. Thomas, Exploration of a Drowned Landscape. Archaeology and history of the Isles of Scilly (London, 1985).
Specific sites: N. Appleton-Fox, ‘Excavations at a Romano-British round, Reawkla, Gwinear, Cornwall’, Cornish Archaeology 31 (1992); P. M. Christie, ‘The excavation of an Iron Age souterrain and settlement at Carn Euny, Sancreed, Cornwall’, PPS 44 (1978); H. Quinnell, Excavations at Trethurgy Round, St Austell: insights into Roman and post-Roman Cornwall (Cornwall County Council, 2004).
The Marches
General works: R. White and P. Barker, Wroxeter. Life and Death of a Roman City (Stroud, 1998); G. Webster, The Cornovii (rev. edn, Gloucester, 1991); cf. K. J.Matthews, ‘Immaterial culture: invisible peasants and consumer subcultures in north-west Britain’, in TRAC 6 (1997); S. Stanford, The Archaeology of the Welsh Marches (London, 1991); R. Whimster, The Emerging Past (London, 1989).
Wales
General works: C. J. Arnold and J. L. Davies, Roman and Early Medieval Wales (Stroud, 2000); B. C. Burnham and J. L. Davies, Conquest, Coexistence and Change (Lampeter, 1990); J. Davies, A History of Wales (Harmondsworth, 1990); J. L. Davies, ‘The early Celts in Wales’, in M. Green (ed.), The Celtic World (London, 1995); A. H. A. Hogg, ‘Invasion and response: the problem in Wales’, in B. C. Burnham and H. B. Johnson (eds), Invasion and Response (Oxford, 1979); F. Lynch et al., Prehistoric Wales (Stroud, 2000); W. Manning, A Pocket Guide. Roman Wales (Cardiff, 2001).
Regional peoples: M. G. Jarrett and J. C. Mann, ‘The tribes of Wales’, Welsh History Review 4 (1969).
South-west Wales. H. James and G. Williams, ‘Rural settlement in Dyfed’, in Miles, The Romano-British Countryside (1982); G. Williams, ‘Recent work on rural settlement in south-west Wales’, in Burnham and Davies, Conquest, Coexistence and Change (1990).
Specific sites: G. Wainwright, ‘The excavation of the fortified settlement at Walesland Rath, Pembrokeshire’, Britannia 2 (1971); The Coygan Camp (Cardiff, 1967).
Environment: A. Caseldine, Environmental Archaeology in Wales (Lampeter, 1990).
South-east Wales. S. Rippon, Gwent Levels: the evolution of a wetland landscape (York, 1996).
Specific sites: A. Hogg, ‘The Llantwit Major villa: a reconsideration of the evidence’, Britannia 5 (1974); M. Jarrett and S. Wrathmell, Whitton. An Iron Age and Roman farmstead in south Glamorgan (Cardiff, 1981); D. M. Robinson (ed.), Biglis, Caldicot and Llandough. Three late Iron Age and Romano-British sites in south-east Wales (Oxford, 1988).
North-east Wales. K. Blockley, ‘The Romano-British period’, in J. Manley et al., The Archaeology of Clywd (Mold, 1991).
Specific sites: K. Blockley, Prestatyn 1984–5. An Iron Age farmstead and Romano-British industrial settlement in north Wales (Oxford, 1989); T. O’Leary, Pentre Farm, Flint (Oxford, 1989).
North-west Wales. P. J. Fasham et al., The Graeanog Ridge. The evolution of a farming landscape and its settlements in north-west Wales (Aberystwyth, 1998); R. S. Kelly, ‘Recent research on the hut group settlements of north-west Wales’, in Burnham and Davies, Conquest, Coexistence and Change (1990); RCAHMW, An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments in Caernarvonshire (vols I/III, London, 1956/1964).
Specific sites: D. Longley et al., ‘Excavations on two farms of the Romano-British period at Bryn Eryr and Bush Farm, Gwynedd’, Britannia 29 (1998).
Northern England
General works: J. Chapman and H. Mytum, Settlement in North Britain 1000 BC–AD 1000 (Oxford, 1983); P. Clack, ‘The northern frontier: farmers in the military zone’, in Miles, Romano-British Countryside (1982); P. Clack and C. C. Haselgrove, Rural Settlement in the Roman North (Durham, 1982); D. W. Harding, The Iron Age in Northern Britain (London, 2004); J. Harding (ed.), Northern Pasts: Interpretations of the later prehistory of northern England and southern Scotland (Oxford, 2000); N. Higham, The Northern Counties to AD 1000 (London and New York, 1986); R. Miket and C. Burgess (eds), Between and Beyond the Walls: Essays on the prehistory and history of North Britain in honour of G. Jobey (Edinburgh, 1984); C. Tolan-Smith, Landscape Archaeology in Tynedale (Newcastle, 1997); P. Wilson et al. (eds), Settlement and Society in the Roman North (Bradford, 1984).
Regional peoples: B. Hartley and L. Fitts, The Brigantes (Gloucester, 1988); C. C. Haselgrove, ‘The Iron Age’, in R. Newman, The Archaeology of Lancashire: present state and future priorities (1996); ‘Iron Age societies in central Britain: retrospect and prospect’, in B. Bevan, Northern Exposure (Leicester, 1999); N. Higham and B. Jones, The Carvetii (Gloucester, 1985); H. Ramm, The Parisi (London, 1978).
Studies of particular sub-regions: J. Barnatt and K. Smith, The Peak District (London, 1997); R. Bewley, Prehistoric and Romano-British Settlement in the Solway Plain, Cumbria (Oxford, 1994); K. Branigan, ‘Villas in the north’, in K. Branigan (ed.), Rome and the Brigantes. The impact of Rome on northern England (Sheffield, 1980); M. Faull and S. Moorhouse, West Yorkshire: an archaeological survey to AD 1500 (Wakefield, 1981); T. Gates, The Hadrian’s Wall Landscape from Chesters to Greenhead: an air photographic survey (Hexham, 1999); P. Halkon and M. Millett, Rural Settlement and Industry: Studies in the Iron Age and Roman archaeology of lowland East Yorkshire (Leeds, 1999); N. Higham and G. D. B. Jones, ‘Frontiers, forts and farmers: the Cumbrian aerial survey 1974–75’, Arch. J. 132 (1976); G. A. Makepeace, ‘Romano-British rural settlements in the Peak District and north-east Staffordshire’, Derbyshire Arch. J. 118 (1998); M. Neville (ed.), Living on the Edge of Empire: models, methodology and marginality (Manchester, 1999); Newman, The Archaeology of Lancashire (1996); J. Price and P. Wilson, Recent Research in Roman Yorkshire (Oxford, 1988); D. Riley, Early Landscapes from the Air (Sheffield, 1980); D. Shotter, Romans and Britons in North-west England (Lancaster, 2004); C. Stoertz, Ancient Landscapes of the Yorkshire Wolds (London, 1997).
Specific sites: D. H. Heslop, The Excavation of an Iron Age Settlement at Thorpe Thewles (London, 1988); D. Neal, Excavations on the Roman Villa at Beadlam, Yorkshire (Leeds, 1996); I. Stead, Rudston Roman Villa (Leeds, 1980); S. Wrathmell and A. Nicholson, Dalton Parlours: Iron Age settlement and Roman villa (Wakefield, 1990); M. van der Veen, Crop Husbandry Regimes: an archaeobotanical study of farming in northern England 1000 BC–AD 500 (Sheffield, 1992).
Scotland
General studies: I. Armit, ‘Cultural landscapes and identities: a case study in the Scottish Iron Age’, in Gwilt and Haselgrove, Reconstructing Iron Age Societies (1997); ‘The abandonment of souterrains’, PSAS 129 (1999); J. C. Barrett et al. (eds), Barbarians and Romans in North-West Europe (Oxford, 1989); D. Breeze, Roman Scotland (London, 1996); W. S. Hanson, ‘The Roman presence: brief interludes’, in K. J. Edwards and I. B. M. Ralston (eds), Scotland: environment and archaeology 8000 BC–AD 1000 (Edinburgh, 1997); R. Hingley, ‘Society in Scotland from 700 BC to AD 200’, PSAS 122 (1992); Harding, The Iron Age in Northern Britain (2004); I. Ralston, ‘Recent work on the Iron Age settlement record in Scotland’, in T. Champion and J. R. Collis, The Iron Age in Britain and Ireland: recent trends (Sheffield, 1996); G. Wittington and K. J. Edwards, ‘Ubi solitudinem faciunt pacem appellant: the Romans in Scotland, a palaeo-environmental contribution’, Britannia 24 (1993).
Regional peoples: R. Hingley, Settlement and Sacrifice. The later prehistoric people of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1998). On the distribution of Roman artefacts, F. Hunter, ‘Roman and native in Scotland: new approaches’, JRA 14 (2001).
Studies of specific sub-regions: D. W. Harding, Later Prehistoric Settlement in South-west Scotland (Edinburgh, 1982); G. S. Maxwell, ‘Settlement in southern Pictland: a new overview’, in A. Small (ed.), The Picts: a new look at an old problem (Dundee, 1987); RCAHMS, North-east Perth: an archaeological landscape (London, 1990); South-east Perth: an archaeological landscape (London, 1994); Eastern Dumfriesshire: an archaeological landscape (London, 1997); J. S. Rideout et al., Hillforts of Southern Scotland (Edinburgh, 1992).
Lowland brochs: L. McInnes, ‘Brochs and the Roman occupation of Lowland Scotland’, PSAS 114 (1994); E. Mackie, ‘The Leckie broch, Stirlingshire: an interim report’, Glasgow Arch. J. 9 (1982); L. Main, ‘Excavations of a timber round-house and broch at Fairy Knowe, Buchlyvie, Stirlingshire, 1975–8’, PSAS 128 (1998).
For figures on the potential impact of Rome in Wales and Scotland, see D. Breeze, ‘The impact of the Roman army on the native peoples of northern Britain’, in H. Vetters and M. Kandler, Der Römische Limes in österreich. Akten der 14 Internationalen Limeskongresses 1986, Carnuntum (Vienna, 1990); J. L. Davies, ‘Native producers and Roman consumers: the mechanisms of military supply in Wales from Claudius to Theodosius’, in W. Groenman-van Waateringe et al. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies 1995 (Oxford, 1997).
14 FREE BRITANNIA: BEYOND THE FRONTIERS
Northern and western Scotland
General works: D. Breeze, ‘The edge of the world: the imperial frontier and beyond’, in P. Salway (ed.), Short Oxford History of the British Isles. The Roman era (2002); K. J. Edwards and I. B. M. Ralston (eds), Scotland: environment and archaeology, 8000 BC–AD 1000 (Edinburgh, 1997); R. Hingley, ‘Society in Scotland from 700 BC to AD 200’, PSAS 122 (1992); L. Keppie, ‘Beyond the northern frontier: Romans and natives in Scotland’, in M. Todd (ed.), Research on Roman Britain: 1960–89 (London, 1989).
Regional peoples: W. A. Cummins, The Age of the Picts (Gloucester, 1995); S. M. Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots. Early historic Scotland (London, 1996); E. MacKie, ‘The early Celts in Scotland’, in M. Green, The Celtic World (London, 1995).
On brochs and other settlement types: I. Armit, ‘Broch building in northern Scotland: the context of innovation’, World Archaeology 21 (1989); Towers in the North. The brochs of Scotland (Stroud, 2003); N. Dixon, The Crannogs of Scotland (Stroud, 2004); E. MacKie, The Roundhouses, Brochs and Wheelhouses of Atlantic Scotland c.700 BC–AD 500 (Oxford, 2002); N. Sharples and M. Parker-Pearson, ‘Why were brochs built?’, in A. Gwilt and C. C. Haselgrove (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies (Oxford, 1997).
Regional studies: I. Armit, The Archaeology of Skye and the Western Isles (Edinburgh, 1995); A. Fenton, The Northern Isles: Orkney and Shetland (Edinburgh, 1978).
Ireland
General works: G. Cooney and E. Grogan, Irish Prehistory. A social perspective (Bray, 1994); P. Freeman, Ireland and the Classical World (Austin, 2001); J. P. Mallory and T. E. McNeill, The Archaeology of Ulster from Colonization to Plantation (Belfast, 1991); B. Raftery, La Tène in Ireland: problems of origin and chronology (Marburg, 1984); Pagan Celtic Ireland. The enigma of the Irish Iron Age (London, 1994); ‘Ireland: a world without Romans’, in Green, The Celtic World (1995); ‘Iron Age studies in Ireland: some recent developments’, in T. Champion and J. R. Collis, The Iron Age in Britain and Ireland: recent trends (Sheffield, 1996); M. Stout, The Irish Ringfort (Dublin, 1997).
Specific sites: B. Raftery, ‘Drumanagh and Roman Ireland’, Archaeology Ireland 35 (10.1) (1996). On the Attacotti, see the convincing arguments of P. Rance, ‘Attacotti, Deisi and Magnus Maximus: the case for Irish federates in late Roman Britain’, Britannia 32 (2001).
Roman and imported finds in Ireland: J. D. Bateson, ‘Roman material from Ireland: a re-examination’, Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 73C(1973); R. Warner, ‘Some observations on the context and importation of exotic material in Ireland from the first century BC to the second century AD’, Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 76C(1976).
15 RURAL CULTURE AND IDENTITY
The land document referred to is published by R. S. O. Tomlin, ‘A five-acre wood in Kent’, in J. Bird et al. (eds), Interpreting Roman London (Oxford, 1996). On the overlap between military and rural identity, E. W. Black, ‘Villa owners: Romano-British gentlemen and officers’, Britannia 25 (1994); N. Roymans, ‘Romanization and the transformation of a martial-elite ideology in a frontier province’, in J. Metzler et al., Integration in the Roman West (Luxembourg, 1995). On Melania, see E. A. Clark, The Life of Melania the Younger (New York, 1984).
Various categories of portable artefacts referred to in the chapter can be found in the fascicules of RIB II. Details about people can mostly be found in A. Birley’s, The People of Roman Britain (London, 1979); L. Allason-Jones, Women in Roman Britain (London, 1989).
The fashioning of elite behaviour
On the general articulation of ‘villa’ culture, see, inter alia, G.de la Bédoyeère, Roman Villas and the Countryside (London, 1993); The Golden Age of Roman Britain (Stroud, 1999); P. Dark, The Landscape of Roman Britain (Gloucester, 1997). Cf. M. Millett, Roman Britain (London, 1995).
Stone inscriptions: RIB I; M. E. Raybould, A Study of Inscribed Material from Roman Britain (Oxford, 1999). Thruxton villa, see M. Henig and G. Soffe, ‘The Thruxton Roman villa and its mosaic pavement’, Journal of the British Archaeological Association 146 (1993); B. Cunliffe, ‘Roman Danebury’, Current Archaeology 188 (2003). Writing implements: W. S. Hanson and R. Conolly, ‘Language and literacy in Roman Britain: some archaeological considerations’, in A. E. Cooley (ed.), Becoming Roman, Writing Latin? (Portsmouth, RI, 2002). Graffiti on personal possessions: see RIB II; also J. Evans, ‘Evidence of literacy and pottery use in Roman Britain’, Arch. J. 144 (1987). Hoxne hoard: R. Bland and C. Johns, The Hoxne Treasure (London, 1993). Names at Bath and Uley: R. S. O. Tomlin, ‘Writing to the gods in Britain’, in Cooley, Becoming Roman, Writing Latin? (2002).
Art and culture: M. Henig (ed.), A Handbook of Roman Art (Oxford, 1983); The Art of Roman Britain (London, 1995); R. and L. Ling, Making Classical Art: process and practice (Stroud, 2000); J. M. C. Toynbee, Art in Roman Britain (London, 1962); Art in Britain under the Romans (London, 1965). For mosaics, in addition to works cited in Chapter 2, see A. Rainey, Mosaics in Roman Britain (Newton Abbot, 1973); D. J. Smith, ‘The mosaic pavements’, in A. L. F. Rivert (ed.), The Roman Villa in Britain (London, 1969).
Iconography of mosaics and knowledge of Classics: S. Scott, ‘The power of images in the late Roman house’, in R. Laurence and A. Wallace-Hadrill (eds), Domestic Space in the Roman World: Pompeii and beyond (Ann Arbor, 1997); Art and Society in Fourth-Century Britain. Villa mosaics in context (Oxford, 2000); cf. A. A. Barrett, ‘The literary classics in Roman Britain’, Britannia 9 (1978).
On Orpheus in art: S. Scott, ‘Symbols of power and nature: the Orpheus mosaics of fourth-century Britain and their architectural contexts’, in TRAC 2 (1995); P. Witts, ‘Mosaics and room function: the evidence from some fourth-century Romano-British villas’, Britannia 31 (2000). Christian and Gnostic elements in mosaics: D. Perring, ‘Gnosticism in fourth-century Britain: the Frampton mosaics reconsidered’, Britannia 34 (2003). Coins of Carausius and Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue: G.de laBédoyeère, The Golden Age of Roman Britain (London, 1999).
Question of British content in provincial art, see the opposing views of C. Johns, ‘Art, Romanisation and competence’, M. Henig, ‘Art and aesthetics: a personal view’, and J. Webster, ‘Art as resistance and negotiation’, in S. Scott and J. Webster (eds), Roman Imperialism and Provincial Art (Cambridge, 2003).
Wall-painting: N. Davey and R. Ling, Romano-British Wall Painting (London, 1981). Marble statuary: see CSIR volumes for the sparse and fragmentary traces. On so-called Celtic heads, cf. A. Ross, Pagan Celtic Britain (London, 1967); and the increasingly cautious comments of the CSIR volume editors. Silver plate: J. P. C. Kent and K. S. Painter, Wealth of the Roman World AD 300–700 (London, 1977); K. S. Painter, The Mildenhall Treasure (London, 1977).
Villa architecture see Chapter 12. For the argument that villa elaboration may reflect individual identity more than an unvaried group identity based on conspicuous consumption, see C. Martins, ‘Becoming consumers: looking beyond wealth as an explanation for villa variability’, in TRAC 12 (2003).
Non-elite rural culture
C. Evans, ‘Britons and Romans at Chatteris: investigations at Langwood Farm’, Britannia 34 (2003); C. Gosden and G. Lock, ‘Becoming Roman on the Berkshire Downs: the evidence from Alfred’s Castle’, Britannia 34 (2003); R. Hingley, Rural Settlement in Roman Britain (London, 1989); R. Hingley and D. Miles, ‘The human impact on the landscape: agriculture, settlement, industry, infrastructure’, in P. Salway (ed.), Short Oxfard History of the British Isles. The Roman era (Oxford, 2002). On the social use of state in domestic buildings, see papers by R. Hingley and S. Scott in R. Samson (ed.), The Social Archaeology of Houses (Edinburgh, 1990).
Comparison of site assemblages of pottery and other finds: see publications by H. E. M. Cool in Chapter 7; H. E. M. Cool and M. J. Baxter, ‘Exploring Romano-British finds assemblages’, OJA 21.4 (2002); D. Longley et al., ‘Excavations on two farms of the Romano-British period at Bryn Eryr and Bush Farm, Gwynedd’, Britannia 29 (1998).
Contextual data on individual finds classes: H. E. M. Cool, ‘Roman metal hairpins from southern Britain’, Arch. J. 147 (1990); ‘Some notes on spoons and mortaria’, in TRAC 13 (2004); H. E. M. Cool and M. Baxter, ‘Peeling the onion: an approach to comparing vessel glass assemblages’, JRA 12 (1999); N. Crummy and H. Eckardt, ‘Regional identities and technologies of the self: nail-cleaners in Roman Britain’, Arch. J. 160 (2003); H. Eckardt, ‘Material matters: the social distribution of Roman artefacts’, JRA 18 (2005) – an important and insightful paper; S. Jundi and J. D. Hill, ‘Brooches and identity in first-century AD Britain: more than meets the eye?’, TRAC 7 (1998); S. Puttock, Ritual Significance of Personal Ornament in Roman Britain (Oxford, 2002). Note also various papers in R. Hingley and S.Willis (eds), Roman Finds: context and theory (Oxford, 2005).
