The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), page 41
The Napoleonic experiment with mass warfare did, however, have some important repercussions for the future organization of armed forces. The superiority of mixed-arm units over unitary structures was clearly demonstrated, with divisions and corps becoming the building blocks of all modern armies. The requirement for dedicated, trained officers capable of mobilizing, administering, manœuvring and meeting the many other needs of complex and substantial forces was also highlighted, leading to the creation of elite academies to prepare such personnel and to the establishment of permanent general staffs which planned for military contingencies in both war and peace. At the tactical level, the development of all-purpose infantry and the massing of firepower also gave a hint of things to come, as did the growing vulnerability of cavalry.
War is the greatest challenge that can confront any human society. How it and its individual members cope with, or fail to cope with, the demands it imposes upon them can not only be a fascinating story, but is also often very moving. If Napoleon’s adversaries were a little slow to develop an effective response to his way of waging war, they eventually did enough to emerge triumphant from one of the greatest and most taxing conflicts in the history of humankind.
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Notes
1. R. Muir, Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon (New Haven, CT, 1996), pp. 14, 377.
2. D.M.G. Sutherland, France, 1789–1815 (London, 1985), p. 423.
3. See A. Gat, The Origins of Military Thought (Oxford, 1989), pp. 106–35; and The Development of Military Thought (Oxford, 1992), pp. 1–134.
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Index
Abensberg, Battle of 119
Addington, Henry, First Viscount Sidmouth, British prime minister 17
Alexander I, Tsar of Russia 15, 17, 18, 23, 27, 28, 32, 34, 50, 51, 81, 88, 97, 113, 198–206, 210, 215, 222–4, 231, 234–6, 239, 241–4, 253, 257–9, 265–6
Almeida 189
Almonacid, Battle of 179
Amantea, Siege of 101
Amiens, Treaty of (1802) 15, 20, 38, 198
Anna, Grand Duchess of Russia 203
Antwerp, British defeat at 253
Arakcheev, Alexei 97
Areizaga, Carlos 182
Armies, organisation of 70, 90–2, 96–7, 114
Arndt, Ernst 110, 127, 227, 230
Arnold, James 115
Aspern-Essling, Battle of 4, 129–33, 134, 140–1
Aubry, Thomas Joseph 69
Auerstädt, Battle of 61–2, 66, 92, 140, 163
Augereau, Pierre François Charles, Duke of Castiglione 22, 25, 57, 58, 63–4, 66, 72, 117
Austerlitz (Slavkov), Battle of 29–34, 92, 95, 199, 235, 243
Austria, foreign policy and grand strategy of 15, 16–20, 28–9, 34, 49–50, 68, 75, 109–10, 112–13, 129, 131, 133, 139–40, 203–4, 225, 239, 241, 243–5, 248
Badajoz, 186, 189, 192
Bagration, Prince Peter 26, 30, 32, 33, 34, 207, 209–10, 212
Bailen, Battle of 107, 173, 181, 187, 191
Ballesteros, Francisco 191–2
Bank of England 152
Barclay de Tolly, Baron Mikhail Bogdanovitch 97, 207, 209–10, 212, 242
Barham, Charles Middleton, Lord 41
Baring, Alexander 152
Barnett, Correlli 3
Basle, Treaty of (1795) 19
Baurle, Adolf 110
Bautzen, Battle of 239–42
Bayonne, Siege of 192, 259
Beauharnais, Eugène de, Viceroy of Italy 114–15, 117, 125–6, 135–8, 225, 235–6, 239, 254
Beauharnais, Josephine de, Empress of France 203
Beaumont, Marc-Antoine Bonin de La Bonière, Count of 127
Beethoven, Ludwig van 125
Bellegarde, Count Heinrich 119
Bennigsen, Count Levin 19, 23, 69–73, 75–8, 80, 212, 245, 248–9
Bentinck, Lord William 254
Beresford, William Carr 178
Berezina, Battle of 217
Bergen-op-Zoom, British defeat at 252
Berlin, Decrees 68, 156–8
Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste Jules, Prince of Ponte Corvo, King of Sweden 21–4, 26–7, 30, 33, 57–60, 63, 66–8, 71, 122–4, 128, 135–8, 200–1, 205, 224, 244–5, 247–9, 252–3, 258
Berthier, Louis-Alexandre, Prince of Neuchâtel and Wagram 114, 116–7
Bertrand, Count Henri-Gatien 236, 238, 241, 251
Bessières, Jean-Baptiste, Duke of Istria 107, 117, 120, 123, 131–2, 138–9, 235
Bidassoa, Battle of the 192
Blaze, Captain Elzéar 1, 12
Blenheim, Battle of (1704) 8
Blücher, Gebhard Leberecht von, Prince of Wahlstadt 61–2, 67, 227, 235–6, 241–2, 245–9, 257, 268
Bonaparte, Jerome, King of Westphalia 81, 126–7, 140, 209–10
Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Naples, later King of Spain 50, 101, 105, 107, 171–4, 183–4, 187
Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 50, 54
Bonaparte, Napoleon, Emperor of the French xv, 1–5, 7, 8, 15–19, 20, 21, 23–7, 29, 30, 32–5, 38–9, 40, 44–6, 49, 50–9, 60, 62–6, 68–9, 70–2, 75–8, 80–2, 88–90, 92, 94, 100, 102–6, 108–17 119–23, 125–9, 131–9, 148, 150–1, 153–65, 171, 176–7, 182, 184–5, 187–9, 190–2, 196, 198–217, 221–7, 229, 230–59, 265, 267–9, 271, 237–5
at Aspern-Essling 128–33
attempts suicide 265
at Austerlitz 29–30, 32–5
at Bautzen 239–42
becomes emperor 16
at Borodino 213–15
campaign in Spain 108
and Continental System 40, 45, 154–62
at Dresden 246–7
at Düben 249
during 1805 campaign 20–1, 23–7
during 1806 campaign 55–69
during 1807 campaign 69–81
during Austrian campaign of 1809 116–39
during German campaign of 1813 231–53
during Russian campaign 209–10, 212–18
during Waterloo campaign 268
and economic and social policy 16, 148–52, 153, 155–6, 159–65
on Elba 265, 267
at Eylau 71–4
first abdication of 192, 259
foreign policy of 15–19, 49–52, 81–2, 104–6, 114, 154–62, 171, 183–4, 190, 198, 200–5, 242–3, 256–8
at Friedland 78–80
at Hanau 252
historical views of 1–2
at Jena 59–60, 62–6
at Leipzig 249–51
literature on xv
at Lützen 236–8
marriage to Marie Louise of Austria 140, 203
military prowess of 3–4
military reforms and (land) strategy and tactics of 5–8
at Moscow 215–16
and naval strategy 44, 46
negotiations with Austria, 1813 225, 243–4
relations with Russia, 1807–12 198, 200–5
relations with Spain and Portugal 102–5, 171, 183, 190–1
second abdication of 269
at Smolensk 212
Stein, attitude to 88
threatens invasion of England 38–9
at Wagram 135–9
Bonnal, Henri, historian 122
Borbon, Cardinal de 193
Borodino, Battle of 4, 5, 165, 213–15, 239
Boudet, Jean 131, 132, 138
Bourcet, Pierre de 3
Bourcier, François 30
Boyen, Hermann von 86, 90, 227
Britain, foreign policy and grand strategy of 2, 15–20, 25, 35, 38–40, 44, 50, 53, 68, 75–6, 82, 92–3, 100–4, 107–9, 112–13, 139–40, 156–9, 166–7, 177–9, 183, 201, 205, 213, 223–6, 243–5, 248
Brueys d’Aigalliers, François Paul 43
Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne 21, 54, 269
Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65–6
Brunswick-Oels, William Frederick, Duke of 140
Bucharest, Treaty of (1812) 205
Bülow, Adam Heinrich Dietrich von 86
Bülow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Count Dennewitz 239, 252–3
Bundesakte 268
Burgos, 192
Bussaco, Battle of 93
Buxhöwden, Count Friedrich Wilhelm 19, 27, 69
Cadiz, Siege of 183
Cameralism 148
Canning, George 104, 113
Carra St Cyr, Claude 131
Castaños, Francisco Xavier, Duke of Bailen 173
Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount 178, 244, 254, 257, 265
Catherine, Grand Duchess of Russia 97, 203
Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis, Marquis de, Duke of Vicenza 234, 242, 253
Chandler, David 227
Chappe, Claude 43
Charles III, King of Spain 175
Charles IV, King of Spain 104–5, 171–2, 273
Chasteler de Courcelles, Johann Gabriel, Marquis of 117, 126
Chaumont, Treaty of (1814) 257–8
Chevalier de Guer 153
Chevaliers de Foi 255
Chlapowski, Dezydery 133, 211
Cintra, Convention of (1808) 107, 175, 178
Ciudad Rodrigo 189, 192
Claparede, Michel 124
Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, Duke of Feltre 232
Clarkson, Thomas 10
Clausewitz, Carl von 2, 4, 12, 52, 64, 86, 90, 221–2, 274
Coalition, The First 39
Coalition, The Second 16
Coalition, The Third 18, 34, 35, 50, 95
Coalition, The Fifth 112–13
Coalition, The Sixth 205, 226, 244, 248
Code Napoléon 105, 151, 162
Coignet, Jean-Roche 22, 69, 133
Collin, Heinrich von, 124
Collingwood, Cuthbert, Baron 42
Connelly, Owen 3, 4
Constantine, Grand Duke 32, 33
Constitution, Spanish (of Bayonne) 191
Constitution, Spanish (1812) 173–4, 192–3
Constitution, Westphalian 81
Continental System 40, 42, 45, 68, 81–2, 100, 103, 112, 154–9, 160–3, 196, 200, 202–3, 226, 230, 255
Copenhagen, Battle of (1801) 43
Cornwallis, Sir William, Admiral 42
Comma, Battle of 108, 113, 177
Cortes 172–5, 182–3, 190–3, 254, 273
Cortone, Siege of 101
Cuesta, Gregorio Garcia de La 173, 177, 179
D’Erlon, Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Count 141
Danzig, Siege of 75, 184
Daru, Count Pierre Bruno, Intendant-Général of the Grande Armée 21, 247
Davout, Louis Nicholas, Duke of Auerstädt, Prince of Eckmühl 21–2, 24, 26, 30, 34, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60–2, 66–7, 71–3, 77, 115–17, 119–21, 123–4, 131–2, 137–8, 206, 208, 210, 212–13, 239, 242, 246, 252, 259
Del Parque, Don Lorenzo Fernandez de Villavincencio, Duke of 182, 191
Dennewitz, Battle of 247, 249
Deutscherbund 228
Diez, Juan Martin, ‘El Empecinado’, guerrilla leader 185, 273
Dörnberg, Wilhelm 126, 134
‘Dualism’, Austro-Prussian 271
Duckworth, Vice Admiral 75
Dundas, Henry, First Viscount Melville 38, 41
Dundas, Robert Sanders, Second Viscount Melville 46
Dupas, Pierre-Louis 136
Dupont de l’Etang, Pierre 24, 26
Duroc, Geraud Christophe Michel, Duke of Friuli 242
Dürrenstein, Battle of 26
Ebelsberg, Battle of 124
Eckmühl (Eggmühl), Battle of 120–1, 123, 125
Elio, Francisco 192–3
Embargo Act (1807) 157
Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon-Condé, Duke of 17
‘English Constitution’ of Siciliy 254
Erfurt, Conference (1808) 108, 113, 201, 203
Eroles, General, guerrilla leader 185
Esdaile, Charles, historian 2
Espagne, Count Jean Louis Brigitte 131
Espinosa, Battle of 108
Eugène, see Beauharnais
Eylau (Bagrationovsk), Battle of 1, 5, 71–5, 92
Fassbender, Matthias von 94–5
Ferdinand, d’Este, Archduke of Austria 19, 20, 24, 25, 28, 29, 115, 134
Ferdinand, Prince of the Asturias and later King Ferdinand VII of Spain 104–6, 173–4, 190, 192–3, 253, 259, 273
Ferdinand IV, (Bourbon) King of Naples 273
Fichte, Johann 110-11, 251
Fontainbleau, Franco-Spanish Treaty of (1807) 102
Fontainbleau, Treaty of (1814) 265
Fontainbleau 159
Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otranto 17
Fox, Charles James 50
France, foreign policy and grand strategy of, 15–18, 20–1, 43–5, 49, 50–2, 54–5, 65–6, 69–70, 75, 81–2, 100, 102–5, 127, 153–4, 157–8, 160–2, 198–200, 202–5, 234–5, 241–3, 246
Francis I, Kaiser of Austria (also Francis II of Germany) 18, 28, 29, 49, 95, 113, 121, 123, 134, 139–40, 242, 248
Fraser, Major-General 75, 100
Frederick, King of Saxony, 226, 251
Frederick II, ‘The Great’, King of Prussia 3, 52, 110, 147, 229
Frederick William III, King of Prussia 19, 23, 50, 51, 52, 53, 61, 68, 81, 87, 89, 90, 113, 202, 222, 227, 230–1, 244, 246, 253, 273
Friant, Count Louis 30, 61–2, 72
Friederich, Rudolf, historian 226
Friedland (Pravdinsk), Battle of 77–80, 92, 97, 212
Fuentes de Oñoro, Battle of 189
Gaeta, Siege of 101
Gamonal, Battle of 108
Ganteaume, Count Honoré Joseph Antoine 44
Gaspar de Jovellanos 174
Gazan, Honoré Theodore Maxime, Count de la Peyrière 26
George III, King of Great Britain 20
Gerlach, Wilhelm von 228
Gerona, Sieges of 182
Geyl, Pieter, historian 1
Ghent, Treaty of (1814) 167, 266
Gneisenau, Neithardt August Wilhelm von 89–90, 227, 229
Godoy, Manuel de 98, 102, 104–6, 171–5
Goethe, Johann von 111, 227, 257
Golymin, Battle of 70
Görres, Joseph 110, 230
Goya, Francisco de, 187
Grenville, William Wyndham, Baron 35, 50
Gribeauval, John-Baptiste Vacquette de 7
Grossbeeren, Battle of 247
Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de 73, 268
Gudin de la Sablonnière, Count Charles Etienne 61, 62, 119
Guibert, Jacques de 3, 7
Gustavus IV, King of Sweden, 82, 101, 129, 199–200, 273
Hanau, Battle of 252
Hardenberg, Karl von, Prussian statesman 51, 87–9, 222, 227
Haugwitz, Christian August Heinrich Curt 50, 51, 52
Hegel, Georg 110–11
Heilsberg, Battle of 77
Heine, Heinrich 231
Hiller, Baron Johann 119–20, 123–4, 128, 133–4
HMS Leopard and USS Chesapeake, clash between 100
Hofer, Andreas 11, 141
Hohenlohe, Friedrich Ludwig, Prince of 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63–7
Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Prince Friedrich Xavier 121
Holtzendorf, General 61, 63, 66
Holy Alliance 272
Hope, Henry 152
Houssaye, Henri xvi
Hoyerswerda, Battle of 242
Huskisson, William 154
Jahn, Friedrich 110, 228
Jefferson, Thomas, President of the USA 153, 157
Jellacic von Buzim, Franz, Baron von 20, 24, 25, 124, 126
Jena, Battle of 62–6, 163, 207
Jervis, John, Earl of St Vincent 40, 41
John, Archduke of Austria 19, 111, 113, 115, 117, 123, 125, 134–7
Jomini, Baron Antoine-Henri de 274
Joseph, Archduke of Austria, Palatine of Hungary 134
Joseph II, Emperor of Austria 11, 95, 112
Josephine, French Empress, see Beauharnais
Jourdan, Count Jean-Baptiste 183
Junot, Jean Andoche, Duke of Abrantes 102, 106–7, 175, 178, 212, 213
Kamenskoi, General 77–8
Karl, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Teschen 17–19, 25, 28–9, 94–6, 111–12, 113–17, 119–24, 126–9, 131–9, 141, 215
Katte, Friedrich von 126, 134, 140
Katzbach, Battle of 247
Keith, George Keith Elphinstone, Viscount 42
Kellermann, François Etienne Christophe, Duke of Valmy 127
Kennedy, Paul 44
Kiel, Treaty of (1814) 253
Kienmayer von Ödenburg, Michael 20, 24, 26
Kincaid, Captain John xvii
Kleist, Heinrich von 110, 202
Klenau, Count Johann 139
Kolowrat-Krakowsky, Count Carl 119–20, 128, 134
Königsberg (Kaliningrad) 68, 70, 71, 78, 222
Körner, Theodor 110, 227–8, 230
Krümpersystem 90, 222
Kulm, Battle of 247
Kutusov, Mikhail Hilarionovich Golenischev-Kutusov 19, 25–7, 29, 32, 210, 213–17, 224, 235
La Romana, Pedro Caro y Sureda, Marquis of 104, 106, 108, 173
Lacy, General 28, 35
Landshut, Battle of 120
Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello 21, 24, 28, 32, 33, 56, 57, 62–4, 66–7, 75, 77–8, 80, 117, 119, 122, 124, 129, 131–3
Larrey, Dr. Dominique Jean, Baron 133
Lasalle, Count Antoine Charles Louis 67, 131
Latour-Maubourg, Marie Victor Nicolas, Marquis de 78
Lawrence, Sergeant William xviii
Lefebvre, François Joseph, Duke of Danzig 75, 117, 119–20, 122, 126, 141, 259
Legrand, Claude-Just 124, 131
Leipzig, Battle of 4, 164, 249–53
Lestocq, General 69, 71–3, 77–8
Levée-en-Masse Act (1803) 166
Liechtenstein, Prince Johann, Austrian general 27, 30, 32
Ligny, Battle of 268
Lines of Torres Vedras 178, 189, 196
Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, Second Earl of 109, 158, 223
Llanos, Martin de 188
Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia, 56, 58
Louis XVIII, King of France 258, 267
Louise, Queen of Prussia, 52
Louisiana Purchase 198
Lübeck, Battle of 67
Luckau, Battle of 242
Luden, Heinrich 257
Lunéville, Treaty of (1801) 15, 16
Lützen, Battle of 235–8
Macdonald, Jacques Etienne Joseph Alexandre, Duke of Tarentum 136–7, 139, 222, 238, 241, 246–7, 259
