A History of Tea, page 2
Depending on the variety (assamica or sinensis) and where it grows, a tea shrub can produce for at least fifty years. The greatest productivity of Camellia sinensis var. sinensis occurs during the first fifty years, although the plant will continue to produce for up to one hundred years.
TEA HARVEST AND PROCESSING
The processing methods for tea vary, according to the kind of tea desired—white, green, oolong, or black. Every tea master, just like every wine master, has a unique of way of creating a special product, but in general, the same basic steps are performed to make leaves into tea. Not every step is necessary for making each type of tea, however. Black tea, for example, involves every stage, while white tea involves only a few.
Once the buds and leaves are plucked, they are brought in from the field within two to three hours for the finest-quality tea. If the picked leaves are bruised, left unattended for too long, or allowed to get too warm, the cell walls in the leaf break down and oxidation begins, resulting in an unpleasant, bitter flavor. This must have been what the earliest tea drinkers experienced, as they plucked leaves and put them directly into boiling water, immediately starting the oxidation process. Letters and diaries from ancient China refer to tea as a bitter brew, and praise its health benefits rather than its taste. As with many other beverages, including coffee and wine, the taste of tea has been greatly enhanced by the evolution of processing methods.
The freshly plucked leaves may undergo one or more of the following processes, which are parts of what’s called an orthodox method of tea processing:
1. Withering. Fresh, green leaves and buds are softened by withering. The leaves are placed on racks in a large, heated room, or sometimes simply allowed to air-dry in the sunshine. The purpose of withering is twofold: First, a biochemical reaction occurs, as the starch in the leaf begins to convert to sugar. The second change is physical, as the moisture content of the leaves drops by 50 to 80 percent. The result is a soft, pliable leaf that can be rolled without breaking. Withering can take anywhere from ten to twenty-four hours, or, when white tea is processed, only about four or five hours.
Withering tray (after drawings by C. A. Bruce, 1838, and J. C. Houssaye, 1843)
Without withering, tea leaves produce an unpleasant, bitter taste. For hundreds of years, workers tested the progress of the withering process by simply squeezing a handful of leaves to see how stiff or limp they felt. Today, more accurate measurements are available in the form of NIR (near infrared) machines that measure the moisture content instantaneously, taking ten readings per second.
The desired moisture content varies from one growing region to another and depends on the characteristics of the leaves growing in a particular area. For example, tea masters of the Assam region of India prefer a soft withering, with a moisture content between 65 and 75 percent. In Sri Lanka, tea masters prefer a hard wither (a drier leaf), between 50 and 60 percent moisture.
One of the many labor-saving inventions that arose for the process of rolling: a tea-rolling table from India
2. Rolling. After withering, the leaves are rolled, either by machine or (increasingly rare) by hand. This serves to twist the leaves and crush them, releasing the sap and exposing it to oxygen, which stimulates fermentation.
In some tea-processing plants, the rolled leaves are then sifted through various grades of screening to sort them by size. The larger leaf particles may be rolled a second or third time to twist and break them sufficiently for the next stage. Rolling takes approximately two hours.
Rolling by hand (after drawings by C. A. Bruce, 1838, and J. C. Houssaye, 1843)
3. Oxidation. This is the most important part of the processing procedure because it is during this stage that the flavor and value of the tea are determined. The oxidation (fermentation) stage also plays the greatest role in creating different categories of tea. For example, black tea is fully oxidized, while green and white teas are not oxidized at all.
The rolled leaves are placed on trays and spread to a thickness of three to six centimeters (one to two inches), then left in a cool, damp place to oxidize for one to three hours. Chemical reactions within the leaf cause it to heat. It is crucial to stop oxidation at the height of this reaction to obtain the best flavor from the leaves. If the temperatures get too high, the leaves taste burned; if too low, the fermentation process stops, resulting in a metallic aftertaste. During oxidation, the color of the leaves changes from green to copper, and the ultimate aroma, flavor, and color of the tea are determined.
4. Drying, or desiccation. The oxidized leaves are dried with hot air in a large drier and on a conveyer belt, at temperatures between 85 and 88 degrees Celsius (185 to 190.4 degrees Fahrenheit). This serves to quickly stop the fermentation process, and the copper-colored leaves turn the characteristic dark brown or black. Drying time, too, is critical because if the leaves retain too much moisture (more than 12 percent), they are subject to mold. If they are allowed to dry out too much (less than 2–3 percent humidity), they produce tea that tastes burned or flavorless.
5. Grading, or sorting. The dried tea leaves are separated into different leaf grades, depending on the size of the leaf particles. The different categories include whole leaf, broken leaf, fannings, and dust. In general, whole leaf (which includes the tender tips and buds) produces the finest-quality tea, while fannings and dust are generally used to make the quick-brewing teas most often used in tea bags.
“Drinking a daily cup of tea will surely starve the apothecary.”
—Chinese proverb
Some combination of these processes is used to make each of the four main types of tea. Within each type of tea, there are countless named varieties and brands. Blends are made by combining different varieties of the same type of tea. For example, a “breakfast blend” combines several different kinds of black tea. The processing stages for the four main varieties are:
Black tea. The leaves undergo all five processing stages and are completely oxidized.
Oolong tea. The leaves are withered and rolled, then partially oxidized (anywhere from 10 to 80 percent, but usually around 60 percent), heated, and sorted.
Green tea. Buds and leaves are withered, then rolled. The smaller and more tightly rolled, the more robust the flavor found in the tea. (For example, the type of green tea called gunpowder is composed of tiny pellets of tightly rolled leaves, and is quite robust.) After rolling, the leaves are immediately heated to prevent oxidation. In China, the leaves are heated by either roasting or pan-frying. In Japan, the leaves are generally steamed. Both processes result in green tea, but the flavors are different. (Consider the difference in taste between a steamed onion and a roasted one.) Japanese green tea tastes herbaceous or vegetal. China green tea has a more citrus or smoky flavor.
Matcha is a green tea that has been ground to a powder, as it was in the fifteenth century. It is still used in the Japanese tea ceremony.
White tea. This is the least processed of all teas. The Tea Council of the USA is spearheading efforts to develop an international standard definition for white tea. They have suggested the following: Tea made from either the first flush bud or the bud and one leaf, either air-dried or directly warm fired. (When “warm fired” the leaves are heated by mechanical means.) Leaves that make white tea undergo no withering, fermentation, or rolling and produce a liquid that is either pale yellow or clear. The best-known white teas are Silver Needle and White Peony, although others are quickly gaining recognition.
“A Suggested Retailer’s Outfit for Tasting Teas.” Showing a “simple but practical lesson by Mr. C. L. T. Beeching.” From W. H. Ukers’ All About Tea, the 1935 tea industry classic
“Women are like teabags; we don’t know our true strengths until we are in hot water.”
—Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962)
CTC tea, called an unorthodox tea, takes its name from the mechanical “crush, tear, and curl” process used to get cheap, uniform, but inferior tea. Tea derived from this process is generally used for blends or tea bags, and it brews quickly, in two to three minutes. CTC is often viewed as the best tea for making chai. The CTC market is very strong; some estimates state that more than 80 percent of India’s tea production is CTC.
GRADES OF TEA
The four grades of black tea (whole leaf, broken leaf, fannings, and dust) vary in quality. The latter two are considered inferior and are used to bulk up more expensive teas, or to make tea bags or instant powdered teas.
Not all tea products display the grade of tea, but when they do, the following will help you determine the quality of tea you are purchasing.
Whole Leaf
OP, or orange pekoe (pronounced peck-oh), is the most basic, or first grade, of whole-leaf black tea. The word “pekoe” comes from the Chinese word pak-ho, meaning the fine hair of a newborn infant, and it indicated the fine hairs or down found on the young tea buds. “Orange” does not refer to color or flavor, but to the Netherlands’ House of Orange. First used by Dutch merchants, the term was meant to convey the idea of noble quality. These leaves are rolled lengthwise and mixed with the golden tips of buds. The more buds, the more expensive the tea. OP usually has few buds included.
FOP, or flowery orange pekoe, is made from tender young leaves with the addition of a certain number of “tips,” the ends of the young leaves, which are considered the highest-quality part of the leaf.
GFOP, golden flower orange pekoe, is considered a high-quality grade.
FTGFOP, or finest tippy golden flowery orange pekoe, is made using mostly tips. It makes a clear, light-amber-colored brew of very high quality.
SFTGFOP, or special finest tippy golden flowery orange pekoe, the highest grade, has a large quantity of leaves with golden tips. This is the highest-quality FOP.
P, pekoe, consists of the shorter leaves without tips, and is of low to medium quality.
FP, flowery pekoe, is made with leaves rolled into a round or ball shape, and is of medium quality.
PS, pekoe souchong, has shorter, coarser leaves of medium quality.
S, souchong, has large leaves rolled lengthwise, and is often used to make China smoked teas; souchong is of medium to high quality.
Broken Leaf
The same designations are used, with the addition of B, indicating broken. Broken-leaf teas are not inferior to whole leaf teas; the broken leaves just make the tea stronger. For example, broken orange pekoe is the finest broken-leaf tea and is designated BOP.
Fannings
Designated BOPF, fannings are small, flat pieces of broken orange pekoe leaves, used to make strong, robust teas. These teas are not of as high a quality as whole or broken leaf.
Dust
This is essentially the dregs left over from the tea process and includes bits of broken leaves. These are often used in tea bags. Dust is designated with a D—for example, BOPD for broken orange pekoe dust. Although CTC tea and dust have particles of about the same size, they have been produced differently. Dust is produced by the orthodox method, while CTC is the result of a mechanized process.
If you can’t remember all that when you are at the tea store, just remember that the more letters (for example, SFTGFOP), usually the higher the quality of the tea. In buying tea, as with buying many other things, you get what you pay for. Although cost should not be the final consideration, generally the higher-quality teas command higher prices. But taste is individual, and certainly the best for one person may be far from the best for another.
“If you are cold, tea will warm you. If you are too heated, it will cool you. If you are depressed, it will cheer you. If you are excited, it will calm you.”
—William Gladstone (1809–1898), British prime minister
CHAPTER 2
History and Legend
“There is a great deal of poetry and fine sentiment in a chest of tea.”
—Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)
LEGENDARY BEGINNINGS
It all began with a single leaf, picked or pulled from a tree over five hundred thousand years ago. Why, on this particular day, did our prehistoric ancestors pull leaves off the tree that we now call Camellia sinensis, and put them into a vessel filled with hot water? Why did they choose that particular plant? Depending on whom you ask, it could be happy accident, divine plan, or the result of much trial and error. Fortunately for us, though, they did, and the results have changed the world forever.
It isn’t often that scientific theory predates legend, but this is precisely what happens in the history of tea. K. Jelinek, editor of the Illustrated Encyclopedia of Prehistoric Man (1978), suggests that the first tea was consumed by the time of the early Paleolithic Period (about five hundred thousand years ago). Archeological evidence from that period indicates that leaves of Camellia sinensis (the source of all true tea, including white, green, oolong, and black) were placed in boiling water by Homo erectus in the area that is now China. The fact that the tea plant is indigenous to many parts of China supports Jelinek’s claim.
In contrast, the most popular and best-known legend about the origin of tea dates to about 3000 BCE, during the time of the mythical Chinese emperor Shen Nung, who is said to be the first ever to taste tea.
“God bless the man that first discovered Tea!”
—Robert W. Service (1874–1958)
According to Chinese mythology, Shen Nung was third in the sequence of divine monarchs called the Three August Ones, legendary rulers from whom all Chinese are said to have descended. The first of these rulers was Empress Nu Wa (also known as Nu-kya), mother of the Chinese people, who used yellow earth to create human beings in the image of gods. She was followed by Fu Xi (also known as Fu-Hsi), who brought knowledge of the Eight Diagrams that allowed the Chinese people to identify and follow heavenly decrees. The third ruler was Shen Nung.
The rule of the Three August Ones represents a special time in Chinese history, an era when ordinary Chinese people lived side by side with the gods. This legendary civilization, the Chinese believe, was the beginning of a people who were superior to all other beings, able to create a culture of unparalleled strength, wisdom, and longevity. Thus, in the earliest stages of Chinese history, the seeds were planted for conflicts that would prove devastating to Chinese civilization five thousand years later—conflicts instigated by the sale of tea. A civilization that believes it is rooted in the divine and that all other civilizations are inferior invites conflict from competition and sets the stage for war.
But war and conflict were the antithesis of what Shen Nung stood for, for his epithet was “Divine Healer.” Scholars of Chinese mythology date the stories told about Shen Nung to sometime between 2838 and 2698 BCE. He goes by many other names as well, including Yen Ti, Earth Emperor, Fire Emperor, Red Emperor, Divine Husbandman, and Divine Farmer.
Shen Nung is considered the father of traditional Chinese medicine, an ancient practice deeply rooted in Taoism that encompasses the relationships among heaven, earth, and man. His greatest contribution was to bring knowledge of herbs and medicine to the people. Legend says that he tested hundreds of herbs for their beneficial and harmful effects.
The legend of Shen Nung’s discovery of tea is an oft-told tale, relating how this mythical emperor once stopped to rest underneath a tea tree during a long journey. Known for the care he took with sanitary matters, Shen Nung was boiling water to drink before he continued on his way. As he sat there, a leaf from the tree above him floated down toward earth, but happened (as things often happen in myth and legend) to fall into his pot of hot water instead. The leaf colored the water, and Shen Nung guessed that something quite magical was happening. Carefully, he took the pot off the fire and, when it cooled, took a few sips of the liquid. As the beverage flowed through his veins, he was filled with a sense of peace and calm.
Of all Shen Nung’s accomplishments and of all the herbs he was said to have tested and introduced to the world, it is his discovery of tea for which he is most famous and most revered. That leaf, accidentally drifting into a pot of boiling water, colored not merely the water, but events in China and in civilizations around the globe, bringing passion, peace, and contentment as well as addiction, war, and poverty. But it all began with a simple leaf.
A bamboo basket for firing tea, one of many types of utensils that were used for tea preparation during the T’ang dynasty; redrawn from an image in the Ch’a Ching, 780 CE
CONFUSING TERMS IN EARLY RECORDS
As the story of Shen Nung illustrates, the beginning of humanity’s experience of tea is “steeped” in myth and legend. In the search for an accurate, trustworthy account of tea’s early days, the literature of the time seems a logical place to begin. But even there, uncertainty abounds.
There have been many attempts to determine the most ancient references to tea in Chinese literature, but scholars have not come to consensus. Part of the confusion arises from the fact that the ancient Chinese character used to designate tea was also used to refer to other shrubs and plants. A modern analogy would be our imprecise but common usage of the name “daisy” to refer to any number of flowers belonging to the Compositae, or “Daisy” family. Until the time of the T’ang dynasty (618–907 CE), the character t’u was used to refer to tea and other medicinal plants, in particular the plant sowthistle, Sonchus arvensis.
One of these early, confusing references occurs in the Shijing (Book of Odes), said to have been edited by Confucius (c. 550–478 BCE). The entry in question is in Ode Ten, “The Lament of a Discarded Wife,” and reads, “Who says that t’u is bitter? It is as sweet as the tsi.” The word t’u, which centuries later referred to tea, most probably referred to sowthistle during the age of Confucius. The word tsi was probably used to indicate the small plant shepherd’s purse, Capsella bursapastoris.
